This work was funded by the core resource of the NIH P30 O'Brien center (DK 079337).

1. Presurgical Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Surgical procedures, no matter how carefully done, result in significant stress. To minimize the effects of such stress and to maximize reserves, animals should be maintained in the vivarium for at least 72 hr before use10,11.</li>
	<li>Surgical tools, gauze, and swabs must be sterile. It is not necessary to use sterile gloves providing only the tips of the instruments touch suture or the operative field.</li>
	<li>For hemostasis, it is imperative that clamping pressures are the minimum necessary. Damage to the vessel due to excessive pressure or rough handling will cause thrombosis, resulting in hind-leg paralysis, bowel ischemia, and death within 24 hr. We have found that using clamps with a pressure of no more than 2 gm/cm2 eliminates the problem. These clamps are noted in Table 1. Clamp pressures are indicated in the specifications for clamps made by high quality surgical instrument manufacturers. We have found that inexpensive clamps or disposable clamps universally exert too much pressure.</li>
	<li>The location of the collateral vessels as well as the relative locations of the abdominal aorta and the inferior vena cava (IVC) are strain dependent. You will also find small variations between individual mice, especially in the location of collateral vessels.</li>
</ol>
2. Donor Operation
<ol>
	<li>Mice can be anesthetized with isoflurane (1.5-2.5 % induction, 1.0 % maintenance in air) or with pentobarbital (55-65 mg/kg). Pentobarbital imposes a time limit (up to 1.5 hr), but provides the surgeon with the option of rotating the animal for better access, if desired. Anesthesia time can be extended to up to 2 hr by placing 2-3 drops of the anesthetic when needed onto the intestine or liver during the surgery. Ketamine/xylazine (100 mg/kg body weight for Ketamine and 7 mg/kg for Xylazine, ip) can also be used by well-trained surgeons who can finish the procedure within 1 to 1.5 hr, but it has a narrower safe dose range. In the US, the use of pentobarbital has become more problematic in recent years because of short supplies. It is imperative that the depth of anesthesia be monitored to be certain that it is sufficient. The toe-pinch reflex is the best indicator of adequate depth but one should also note respiration rate and other movements as well.</li>
	<li>After anesthesia induction, use a depilatory gel or a shaver to remove hair on the ventral abdomen.</li>
	<li>Mount the animal on the operating board using laboratory tape to hold it in a spread-eagled position. A metallic operating board permits the use of a heating pad underneath it to provide temperature support during the surgery. We manually control the temperature of the heating pad, which is a consumer-grade unit for home-use. The temperature is maintained between 35-38&deg;. The metallic operating board is also easy to sterilize between procedures.</li>
	<li>Disinfect the area using a disinfectant like chlorhexidine, followed by an ethanol wash. Repeat this procedure three times, to insure adequate disinfection. This will also remove any residual cut pieces of hair, if present.</li>
	<li>Using scissors make an incision through the body wall to expose the abdominal viscera.</li>
	<li>Use a cotton swab, push the viscera off to the side to expose the great vessels of the abdomen. The viscera are placed on a piece of gauze that is wetted with warm saline to keep it moist.</li>
	<li>Using blunt dissection, very carefully dissect the abdominal aorta away from the surrounding tissue. Be very careful in dissecting the vessel away from the inferior vena cava. There will be one or more branches, such as the lumbar artery, that must be carefully lifted and cauterized. The section of dissected aorta should be below the renal vessels and above the bifurcation of the aorta into the femoral arteries. This section can serve as donor material for as many as two recipients, depending on how many branching vessels exist and the size of the donor animal.</li>
	<li>Tie a suture just below the renal arteries and another just above the bifurcation. Using scissors divide the aorta, fully rinse the graft with saline containing 200 U/ml heparin. Very carefully hold one end of the vessel and drip the saline solution so that it runs through the vessel by gravity. Do not let air bubbles run through the vessel. Handle the ends of the vessel as little as possible otherwise the intima can be damaged resulting in thrombosis later. Remove it from the field and immediately place it in a container of ice-cold saline. Allow the donor animal to exsanguinate.</li>
</ol>
3. Recipient Operation
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize the animal as above and apply a depilatory gel or use a shaver to remove hair on the abdomen. Just prior to the incision we administer a dose of buprenorphine subcutaneously at 0.1 mg/kg to establish analgesia.</li>
	<li>Mount the animal on the operating field using laboratory tape. The animal must be mounted on a warm operating stage that will help maintain body temperature during the operation.</li>
	<li>Apply gentamycin ophthalmic ointment to the eyes to prevent them from drying out.</li>
	<li>Disinfect the abdomen, followed by an ethanol wash. Repeat this procedure three times, to insure adequate disinfection.</li>
	<li>Check the adequacy of anesthesia once again before proceeding to the next step.</li>
	<li>Make a midline incision through the skin and the body wall in two stages, being careful not to impinge on the tissues underneath.</li>
	<li>Insert a spreader to hold the abdominal incision open. Point the screw assembly towards the hind end to keep the bulk of the clamp out of the way.</li>
	<li>Wet a square of sterile gauze with saline and place it over the intestines. With your finger gently on the gauze, insert a cotton swab under the intestines and gently reflect the intestines over to the side so they are sitting on top of the gauze. Take another piece of gauze, place it on the intestines and wet it with saline.</li>
	<li>Remove any fatty tissue covering the aorta and the inferior vena cava (IVC). Be gentle. The IVC is very fragile.</li>
	<li>Gently use forceps to dissect the infrarenal aorta from the IVC. Clear an area large enough to provide room for two clamps with enough vessel between them such that, when divided, there will be enough vessel to which the graft can be sutured. When dissecting, look for vessel branches. If necessary cauterize them with a low temperature cauterizer.</li>
	<li>Insert a vascular clamp just below the renal artery and another one just above the bifurcation.</li>
	<li>Cut the aorta. The ends of the aorta will usually retract, leaving a space of about 5 mm. Check for hemostasis. If the clamps are working correctly, only a small amount of blood should escape after the cut. If bleeding continues, check the clamps to be sure nothing is interfering with them. Note that none of the aorta is removed. It is merely divided.</li>
	<li>Rinse the cut ends with heparinized saline (200 U/ml) and then remove the extra solution with a swab.</li>
	<li>Tack the graft into place using three discontinuous sutures at each end. Just suture one side of the anastomosis at each end, and then fill in the rest with a continuous running suture or more discontinuous sutures. Seven to eight discontinuous sutures is sufficient. If you use a running suture, be sure that the vessel walls remain relaxed and that you do not cause stenosis at the anastomosis.</li>
	<li>Carefully remove the clamp at the cranial end and look for leaks at the suture lines. A small amount of seepage is OK providing it stops within about a minute. If there is more than that, it is possible to use a single stitch to stop the bleeding.</li>
	<li>Gently press on the aorta above the anastomosis site with a wetted cotton applicator, and then remove the second clamp. Gently press and release a couple of times and check that the aorta appears patent. The graft will be perfused immediately and a pulse should be visible.</li>
	<li>Remove the gauze covering the intestines and move them back into place. Avoid twisting of the intestine and maintain normal anatomical orientation.</li>
	<li>Close the muscle layer using 5-0 Vicryl.</li>
	<li>Close the skin using 5-0 or 6-0 prolene.</li>
	<li>Treat the mouse subcutaneously with carprophen at 5 mg/kg to augment analgesia before terminating anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Give the mouse 0.5-0.8 ml saline subcutaneously.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse in a heated cage to recover. Monitor it carefully during recovery to be sure that it is recovering normally. 2-3 hr after surgery, the mouse should be behaving relatively normally. At 12 hr post-op, treat the animal with buprenorphine subcutaneously at 2 mg/kg for analgesia. If, at any time, the animal is hunched, making noise or exhibiting a limited range of motion, investigate the problem. If a definitive cause cannot be established and fixed, the animal should be euthanized per institutional protocols. At 24 hr the animal should receive another dose of carprophen subcutaneously at 5 mg/kg. Hind leg paralysis indicates a failed anastomosis or a thrombus. In this situation, the animal should be euthanized.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sun, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+surgical+technique+for+the+establishment+of+a+murine+model+of+aortic+transplantation.">Improved surgical technique for the establishment of a murine model of aortic transplantation.</a> Microsurgery. 18, 368-371 (1998).</li><li>Dambrin, C., Calise, D., Pieraggi, M. T., Thiers, J. C., Thomsen, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthotopic+aortic+transplantation+in+mice:+a+new+model+of+allograft+arteriosclerosis.">Orthotopic aortic transplantation in mice: a new model of allograft arteriosclerosis.</a> J. Heart Lung Transpl. 18, 946-951 (1999).</li><li>Calise, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthotopic+aortic+transplantation+in+rodents+by+the+sleeve+technique:+a+model+system+for+the+study+of+graft+vascular+disease.">Orthotopic aortic transplantation in rodents by the sleeve technique: a model system for the study of graft vascular disease.</a> Transpl. Proc. 33, 2369-2370 (2001).</li><li>Thomsen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+orthotopic+aortic+graft+mouse+model+to+study+the+immunopathology+of+chronic+vascular+rejection.">An orthotopic aortic graft mouse model to study the immunopathology of chronic vascular rejection.</a> Transpl. Proc. 34, 2833-2835 (2002).</li><li>Benza, R. L., George, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aortic+graft+transplantation+in+mice.">Aortic graft transplantation in mice.</a> J. Heart Lung Transpl. 21, 1319-1321 (2002).</li><li>Chereshnev, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+model+of+heterotopic+aortic+arch+transplantation.">Mouse model of heterotopic aortic arch transplantation.</a> The Journal of surgical research. 111, 171-176 (2003).</li><li>Cho, H. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+surgical+technique+for+heterotopic+aortic+transplantation+in+mice.">Improved surgical technique for heterotopic aortic transplantation in mice.</a> J. Korean Med. Sci. 22, 12-15 (2007).</li><li>Zhong, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organ+transplantation+in+mice:+current+status+and+future+prospects.">Organ transplantation in mice: current status and future prospects.</a> Microsurgery. 19, 52-55 (1999).</li><li>George, J. F., Pinderski, L. J., Litovsky, S., Kirklin, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Of+mice+and+men:+mouse+models+and+the+molecular+mechanisms+of+post-transplant+coronary+artery+disease.">Of mice and men: mouse models and the molecular mechanisms of post-transplant coronary artery disease.</a> J. Heart Lung Transpl. 24, 2003-2014 (2005).</li><li>Gorska, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Principles+in+laboratory+animal+research+for+experimental+purposes.">Principles in laboratory animal research for experimental purposes.</a> Med Sci Monit. 6, 171-180 (2000).</li><li>Landi, M. S., Kreider, J. W., Lang, C. M., Bullock, L. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+shipping+on+the+immune+function+in+mice.">Effects of shipping on the immune function in mice.</a> Am. J. Vet. Res. 43, 1654-1657 (1982).</li><li>Sun, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+surgical+technique+for+the+establishment+of+a+murine+model+of+aortic+transplantation.">Improved surgical technique for the establishment of a murine model of aortic transplantation.</a> Microsurgery. 18, 368-371 (1998).</li><li>Chen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carbon+monoxide+rescues+heme+oxygenase-1-deficient+mice+from+arterial+thrombosis+in+allogeneic+aortic+transplantation.">Carbon monoxide rescues heme oxygenase-1-deficient mice from arterial thrombosis in allogeneic aortic transplantation.</a> Am. J. Pathol. 175, 422-429 (2009).</li><li>Corry, R. J., Winn, H. J., Russell, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heart+transplantation+in+congenic+strains+of+mice.+Transpl.">Heart transplantation in congenic strains of mice. Transpl.</a> Proc. 5, 733-735 (1973).</li><li>Chang, E. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vascular+anastomosis+using+controlled+phase+transitions+in+poloxamer+gels.">Vascular anastomosis using controlled phase transitions in poloxamer gels.</a> Nature medicine. 17, 1147-1152 (2011).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

Mouse models of aortic transplantation provide a number of advantages because mice are very well defined immunogenetically9,12,13, and they can be easily manipulated to alter their expression of specific genes, if desired. As noted in the introduction, vascular surgery in the mouse is more difficult than most models because of the size of the vessels. Even the great arteries, such as the aorta are usually no more than 100-200 &mu;m in inner diameter; so manipulating these vessels requires a significant amount ...

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 	<td>Dumont Forceps</td>
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orthotopic aortic transplantation in mice for the study of vascular disease

Vascular procedures involving anastomoses in the mouse are generally thought to be difficult and highly dependent on the skill of the individual surgeon. This is largely true, but there are a number of important principles that can reduce the difficulty of these procedures and enhance reproducibility. Orthotopic aortic transplantation is an excellent procedure in which to learn these principles because it involves only two end-to-end anastomoses, but requires good suturing technique and handling of the vessels for consistent success. This procedure begins with the procurement of a length of abdominal aorta from a donor animal, followed by division of the native aorta in the recipient. The procured aorta is then placed between the divided ends of the recipient aorta and sutured into place using end-to-end anastomoses. To accomplish this objective successfully requires a high degree of concentration, good tools, a steady hand, and an appreciation of how easily the vasculature of a mouse can be damaged, resulting in thrombosis. Learning these important principles is what occupies most of the beginner's time when learning microsurgery in small rodents. Throughout this protocol, we refer to these important points. This model can be used to study vascular disease in a variety of different experimental systems1-8. In the context shown here, it is most often used for the study of post-transplant vascular disease, a common long-term complication of solid organ transplantation in which intimal hyperplasia occurs within the allograft. The primary advantage of the model is that it facilitates quantitative morphometric analyses and the transplanted vessel lies contiguous to the endogenous vessel, which can serve as an additional control9. The technique shown here is most often used for mice weighing 18-25 grams. We have accumulated most of our experience using the C57BL/6J, BALB/cJ, and C3H/HeJ strains.

Figure 1 shows an aortic graft. The white arrows denote the suture lines. A patent graft will show a visible pulse. Figure 2 indicates a typical experiment in which recipient survival was followed for a period of 56 days. One group consisted of wild-type (C57BL/6 x FVB) recipient mice transplanted with BALB/c aorta. The other group, designated "KO" consists of recipients (C57BL/6 x FVB) deficient in expression of heme oxygenase-1, which results in thrombosis of the grafts within 24 hr. N...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Orthotopic Aortic Transplantation in Mice for the Study of Vascular Disease at JoVE.com

Orthotopic Aortic Transplantation in Mice for the Study of Vascular Disease

We describe a technique in which a section of the abdominal aorta from a mouse is transplanted orthotopically to just below the renal arteries in an allogeneic or syngeneic recipient. This technique can be useful in studies in which transplantation of large arteries of uniform size is deemed advantageous.

Vascular procedures involving anastomoses in the mouse are generally thought to be difficult and highly dependent on the skill of the individual surgeon. ...

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10.8K Views.  The University of Alabama at Birmingham. We describe a technique in which a section of the abdominal aorta from a mouse is transplanted orthotopically to just below the renal arteries in an allogeneic or syngeneic recipient. This technique can be useful in studies in which transplantation of large arteries of uniform size is deemed advantageous.

Video: Orthotopic Aortic Transplantation in Mice for the Study of Vascular Disease

Orthotopic Aortic Transplantation: A Rat Model to Study the Development of Chronic Vasculopathy

Research models of chronic rejection are essential to investigate pathobiological and pathophysiological processes during the development of transplant vasculopathy (TVP).
The commonly used animal model for cardiovascular chronic rejection studies is the heterotopic heart transplant model performed in laboratory rodents. This model is used widely in experiments since Ono and Lindsey (3) published their technique. To analyze the findings in the blood vessels, the heart has to be sectioned and all vessels have to be measured.
Another method to investigate chronic rejection in cardiovascular questionings is the aortic transplant model (1, 2). In the orthotopic aortic transplant model, the aorta can easily be histologically evaluated (2). The PVG-to-ACI model is especially useful for CAV studies, since acute vascular rejection is not a major confounding factor and Cyclosporin A (CsA) treatment does not prevent the development of CAV, similar to what we find in the clinical setting (4). A7-day period of CsA is required in this model to prevent acute rejection and to achieve long-term survival with the development of TVP.
This model can also be used to investigate acute cellular rejection and media necrosis in xenogeneic models (5).

This video demonstrates the orthotopic aortic transplant model as a simple model to study the development of transplant vasculopathy (TVP) in rats.

Research models of chronic rejection are essential to investigate pathobiological and pathophysiological processes during the development of transplant ...

Orthotopic Small Bowel Transplantation in Rats

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition (irreversible intestinal failure). In specialized centers improved operative and managing strategies have led to excellent short- and intermediate term patient and graft survival while providing high quality of life 1,3. Unlike in the more common transplantation of other solid organs (i.e. heart, liver) many underlying mechanisms of graft function and immunologic alterations induced by intestinal transplantation are not entirely known6,7. Episodes of acute rejection, sepsis and chronic graft failure are the main obstacles still contributing to less favorable long term outcome and hindering a more widespread employment of the procedure despite a growing number of patients on home parenteral nutrition who would potentially benefit from such a transplant. The small intestine contains a large number of passenger leucocytes commonly referred to as part of the gut associated lymphoid system (GALT) this being part of the reason for the high immunogenity of the intestinal graft. The presence and close proximity of many commensals and pathogens in the gut explains the severity of sepsis episodes once graft mucosal integrity is compromised (for example by rejection). To advance the field of intestinal- and multiorgan transplantation more data generated from reliable and feasible animal models is needed. The model provided herein combines both reliability and feasibility once established in a standardized manner and can provide valuable insight in the underlying complex molecular, cellular and functional mechanisms that are triggered by intestinal transplantation. We have successfully used and refined the described procedure over more than 5 years in our laboratory 8-11. The JoVE video-based format is especially useful to demonstrate the complex procedure and avoid initial pitfalls for groups planning to establish an orthotopic rodent model investigating intestinal transplantation.

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted treatment option for patients with irreversible intestinal failure. Our experimental model of orthotopic small bowel transplantation in rats serves as a reliable tool to address underlying immunologic and inflammatory processes that complicate intestinal transplantation.

Small  bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with  short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition ...

Orthotopic Liver Transplantation in Rats

Clinical progress in the field of liver transplantation has been largely supported by animal models1,2. Since the publication of the first orthotopic rat liver transplantation in 1979 by Kamada et al.3, this model has remained the gold standard despite various proposed alternative techniques4. Nevertheless, its broader use is limited by its steep learning curve5.
In this video paper, we show a simple and easy-to-establish revision of Kamada's two-cuff technique. The suprahepatic vena cava anastomosis is performed manually with a running suture, and the vena porta and infrahepatic vena cava anastomoses are performed utilizing a quick-linker cuff system6. Manufacturing the quick-linker kit is shown in a separate video paper.

We present an easy-to-establish revision of the classical two-cuff technique for orthotopic liver transplantation in rat.

Clinical progress in the field of liver transplantation has been largely supported by animal models1,2. Since the publication of the first orthotopic rat ...

Ascending Aortic Constriction in Rats for Creation of Pressure Overload Cardiac Hypertrophy Model

Ascending aortic constriction is the most common and successful surgical model for creating pressure overload induced cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Here, we describe a detailed surgical procedure for creating pressure overload and cardiac hypertrophy in rats by constriction of the ascending aorta using a small metallic clip. After anesthesia, the trachea is intubated by inserting a cannula through a half way incision made between two cartilage rings of trachea. Then a skin incision is made at the level of the second intercostal space on the left chest wall and muscle layers are cleared to locate the ascending portion of aorta. The ascending aorta is constricted to 50&#8211;60% of its original diameter by application of a small sized titanium clip. Following aortic constriction, the second and third ribs are approximated with prolene sutures. The tracheal cannula is removed once spontaneous breathing was re-established. The animal is allowed to recover on the heating pad by gradually lowering anesthesia. The intensity of pressure overload created by constriction of the ascending aorta is determined by recording the pressure gradient using trans-thoracic two dimensional Doppler-echocardiography. Overall this protocol is useful to study the remodeling events and contractile properties of the heart during the gradual onset and progression from compensated cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure stage.

We describe a stepwise procedure for creating pressure overload and left ventricular hypertrophy in Wistar rats by constriction of the ascending aorta using a small metallic clip. This model is extensively used for studying remodeling changes during cardiac hypertrophy and for identifying and evaluating strategies for regression of such changes.

Ascending aortic constriction is the most common and successful surgical model for creating pressure overload induced cardiac hypertrophy and heart ...

Orthotopic Hind Limb Transplantation in the Mouse

In vivo animal model systems, and in particular mouse models, have evolved into powerful and versatile scientific tools indispensable to basic and translational research in the field of transplantation medicine. A vast array of reagents is available exclusively in this setting, including mono- and polyclonal antibodies for both diagnostic and interventional applications. In addition, a vast number of genotyped, inbred, transgenic, and knock out strains allow detailed investigation of the individual contributions of humoral and cellular components to the complex interplay of an immune response and make the mouse the gold standard for immunological research. 
Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation (VCA) delineates a novel field of transplantation using allografts to replace "like with like" in patients suffering traumatic or congenital tissue loss. This surgical methodological protocol shows the use of a non-suture cuff technique for super-microvascular anastomosis in an orthotopic mouse hind limb transplantation model. The model specifically allows for comparison between established paradigms in solid organ transplantation with a novel form of transplants consisting of various different tissue components. Uniquely, this model allows for the transplantation of a viable vascularized bone marrow compartment and niche that have the potential to exert a beneficial effect on the balance of immune acceptance and rejection. This technique provides a tool to investigate alloantigen recognition and allograft rejection and acceptance, as well as enables the pursuit of functional nerve regeneration studies to further advance this novel field of transplantation.

This novel model for orthotopic hind limb transplantation in the mouse, applying a non-suture cuff technique for super-microvascular anastomosis, provides a powerful tool for in&#160;vivo mechanistic immunological research related to vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA).

In vivo animal model systems, and in particular mouse models, have evolved into powerful and versatile scientific tools indispensable to basic and ...

Calcification of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells and Imaging of Aortic Calcification and Inflammation

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. Atherosclerotic plaques, consisting of lipid-laden macrophages and calcification, develop in the coronary arteries, aortic valve, aorta, and peripheral conduit arteries and are the hallmark of cardiovascular disease. In humans, imaging with computed tomography allows for the quantification of vascular calcification; the presence of vascular calcification is a strong predictor of future cardiovascular events. Development of novel therapies in cardiovascular disease relies critically on improving our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of atherosclerosis. Advancing our knowledge of atherosclerotic mechanisms relies on murine and cell-based models. Here, a method for imaging aortic calcification and macrophage infiltration using two spectrally distinct near-infrared fluorescent imaging probes is detailed. Near-infrared fluorescent imaging allows for the ex vivo quantification of calcification and macrophage accumulation in the entire aorta and can be used to further our understanding of the mechanistic relationship between inflammation and calcification in atherosclerosis. Additionally, a method for isolating and culturing animal aortic vascular smooth muscle cells and a protocol for inducing calcification in cultured smooth muscle cells from either murine aortas or from human coronary arteries is described. This in vitro method of modeling vascular calcification can be used to identify and characterize the signaling pathways likely important for the development of vascular disease, in the hopes of discovering novel targets for therapy.

Vascular calcification is an important predictor of and contributor to human cardiovascular disease. This protocol describes methods for inducing calcification of cultured primary vascular smooth muscle cells and for quantifying calcification and macrophage burden in animal aortas using near-infrared fluorescence imaging.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world.  Atherosclerotic plaques, consisting of lipid-laden macrophages and ...

Using the Sleeve Technique in a Mouse Model of Aortic Transplantation - An Instructional Video

Orthotopic aortic transplantation using the sleeve technique reduces injury to the aorta with failure rate of only 10-20%. The time to anastomose the aorta in mice using the sleeve method was short and easy averaging 20 min, permitting studies of iso/allo grafts. The following article describes the aortic transplantation procedure used in our laboratory. The mice were anesthetized with a mixture of 1.5% volume isoflurane and 100% oxygen through a face mask. At this point, the segment of the aorta between the renal arteries and its bifurcation was separated from the vena cava, freely prepared and clampedat the proximal and distal segments with a single silk suture. Prior to the removal of the aorta, a saline solution containing heparin was injected into the inferior vena cava. Then the aorta was cut between the clamps and a saline heparin solution was used to flush the lumen. The sleeve technique with monofilament sutures was used in order to transplant the abdominal aorta in the orthotopic position.

We present an orthotopic aortic transplantation model using the sleeve technique in mice. It is a very rapid anastomosis method, which can be employed in studies of vascular disease.

Orthotopic aortic transplantation using the sleeve technique reduces injury to the aorta with failure rate of only 10-20%. The time to anastomose the ...

Minimally Invasive Transverse Aortic Constriction in Mice

Minimally invasive transverse aortic constriction (MTAC) is a more desirable method for the constriction of the transverse aorta in mice than standard open-chest transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Although transverse aortic constriction is a highly functional method for the induction of high pressure in the left ventricle, it is a more difficult and lengthy procedure due to its use of artificial ventilation with tracheal intubation. TAC is oftentimes also less survivable, as the newer method, MTAC, neither requires the cutting of the ribs and intercostal muscles nor tracheal intubation with a ventilation setup. In MTAC, as opposed to a thoracotomy to access to the chest cavity, the aortic arch is reached through a midline incision in the anterior neck. The thyroid is pulled back to reveal the sternal notch. The sternum is subsequently cut down to the second rib level, and the aortic arch is reached simply by separating the connective tissues and thymus. From there, a suture can be wrapped around the arch and tied with a spacer, and then the sternal cut and skin can be closed. MTAC is a much faster and less invasive way to induce left ventricular hypertension and enables the possibility for high-throughput studies. The success of the constriction can be verified using high-frequency trans-thoracic echocardiography, particularly color Doppler and pulsed-wave Doppler, to determine the flow velocities of the aortic arch and left and right carotid arteries, the dimension of the blood vessels, and the left ventricular function and morphology. A successful constriction will also trigger significant histopathological changes, such as cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy with interstitial and perivascular fibrosis. Here, the procedure of MTAC is described, demonstrating how the resulting flow changes in the carotid arteries can be examined with echocardiography, gross morphology, and histopathological changes in the heart.

Minimally invasive transverse aortic constriction (MTAC) conserves the essentials of regular transverse aortic constriction (TAC) while eliminating the use of a ventilator with tracheal intubation. It proves to be a highly desirable method for high-throughput studies on left ventricular overload, particularly in translational studies.

Minimally invasive transverse aortic constriction (MTAC) is a more desirable method for the constriction of the transverse aorta in mice than standard ...

Induction of Nephrotic Syndrome in Mice by Retrobulbar Injection of Doxorubicin and Prevention of Volume Retention by Sustained Release Aprotinin

Nephrotic syndrome is the most extreme manifestation of proteinuric kidney disease and characterized by heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and edema due to sodium retention and hyperlipidemia. To study the pathophysiology of this syndrome, rodent models have been developed based on the injection of toxic substances such as doxorubicin causing podocyte damage. In mice, only few strains are susceptible to this model. In wildtype 129S1/SvImJ mice, the administration of doxorubicin by rapid intravenous injection to the retrobulbar sinus induces experimental nephrotic syndrome that features all the symptoms of human disease including sodium retention and edema. After the onset of proteinuria, mice exhibit increased urinary serine protease activity that leads to the activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and sodium retention. Pharmacological inhibition of urinary serine proteases by the treatment with sustained release aprotinin abrogates ENaC activation and prevents sodium retention. This model is ideal to study the pathophysiology of proteasuria, i.e., the excretion of active serine proteases that cause ENaC activation by the proteolysis of its &#947;-subunit. This can be regarded as the primary mechanism of ENaC activation and sodium retention in proteinuric kidney disease.

Here, we describe the induction of experimental nephrotic syndrome in 129S1/SvImJ mice by rapid retrobulbar injection of doxorubicin. We also treat nephrotic mice with sustained release pellets containing aprotinin to inhibit urinary serine protease activity and prevent sodium retention.

Nephrotic syndrome is the most extreme manifestation of proteinuric kidney disease and characterized by heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and edema due ...

A Model of Reverse Vascular Remodeling in Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease by Aortic Debanding in Rats

Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease (PH-LHD) is the most common form of PH, yet its pathophysiology is poorly characterized than pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). As a result, approved therapeutic interventions for the treatment or prevention of PH-LHD are missing. Medications used to treat PH in PAH patients are not recommended for treatment of PH-LHD, as reduced pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and increased pulmonary blood flow in the presence of increased left-sided filling pressures may cause left heart decompensation and pulmonary edema. New strategies need to be developed to reverse PH in LHD patients. In contrast to PAH, PH-LHD develops due to increased mechanical load caused by congestion of blood into the lung circulation during left heart failure. Clinically, mechanical unloading of the left ventricle (LV) by aortic valve replacement in aortic stenosis patients or by implantation of LV assist devices in end-stage heart failure patients normalizes not only pulmonary arterial and right ventricular (RV) pressures but also PVR, thus providing indirect evidence for reverse remodeling in the pulmonary vasculature. Using an established rat model of PH-LHD due to left heart failure triggered by pressure overload with subsequent development of PH, a model is developed to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms of this physiological reverse remodeling process. Specifically, an aortic debanding surgery was performed, which resulted in reverse remodeling of the LV myocardium and its unloading. In parallel, complete normalization of RV systolic pressure and significant but incomplete reversal of RV hypertrophy was detectable. This model may present a valuable tool to study the mechanisms of physiological reverse remodeling in the pulmonary circulation and the RV, aiming to develop therapeutic strategies for treating PH-LHD and other forms of PH.

The present protocol describes a surgical procedure to remove ascending-aortic banding in a rat model of pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease. This technique studies endogenous mechanisms of reverse remodeling in the pulmonary circulation and the right heart, thus informing strategies to reverse pulmonary hypertension and/or right ventricular dysfunction.

Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease (PH-LHD) is the most common form of PH, yet its pathophysiology is poorly characterized than pulmonary ...