Support: This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health (DK064862, NS058525 and AA019357 to GGF).

1. Short-term LMA Set Up and Procedure
<ol>
	<li>Short-term LMA cage set up
	<ol>
		<li>Test short-term LMA within the home cage of a single-housed mouse. To facilitate VTS-dependent image analysis, use bedding in high contrast with mouse color (i.e. dark colored bedding for white mice and light colored bedding for black mice).</li>
		<li>During short-term LMA testing, cover cages with clear &frac14; in Plexiglas with 11 x &frac14; in diameter holes to support appropriate ventilation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Short-term LMA testing room
	<ol>
		<li>Test mice in a clean environment in which they have been acclimated to for at least 24 hr 8.</li>
		<li>To illuminate the testing environment, use brooder clamp lights with red bulbs (&lt; 125 lumens). Prior to videography, adjust the angle and position of the lights to remove glare or reflections from the Plexiglas cage tops.</li>
		<li>Remove or avoid room noise above 70 dB. Use a white noise generator if intermittent background noise is unavoidable during mouse testing.</li>
		<li>Cover the testing surface upon which the cages are placed in the testing room with butcher or lab bench paper of similar color to the cage bedding, in case the cage floor is exposed during videography.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Short-term LMA videography
	<ol>
		<li>Center and place a ceiling-mounted night vision-capable video camera with at least 120 GB of memory above the recording area in the testing room. Do not exceed the resolution capability of the VTS used by placing too many cages within the video camera view frame (e.g. Ethovision XT 7 by Noldus Information Technology (Leesburg VA) can simultaneously track 8 mice in real-time).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Short-term LMA testing procedure
	<ol>
		<li>Test short-term LMA during the active/dark phase of the light cycle. Make sure the time relative to the light cycle is the same across all groups, as LMA follows a crepuscular pattern, with more activity during the early and later periods of the dark cycle 1. Include both experimental and control subjects in each group of recorded mice to ensure potential effects of temporal differences in LMA are minimized.</li>
		<li>Individually house and acclimate mice at least 24 hr prior to the start of LMA testing 8.</li>
		<li>Place the cage dividers and cages (containing individual mice) directly under the camera. Remove all nesting/enrichment material from the cages, as this may obstruct the view of the mouse (e.g. if the mouse burrows/covers itself with nesting material) and interfere with VTS accuracy. Place a clear Plexiglas lid on each cage recorded.</li>
		<li>When videoing several cages simultaneously, be sure that the resolution is compatible with the chosen VTS. To ease VTS analysis, position the cages identically within each divider (i.e. upper right hand corner).</li>
		<li>Start recording. Begin each video with a slate that identifies all relevant experimental information to ensure proper identification of the video independent of any additional non-video documentation. Use a timer or stopwatch to track duration of LMA testing (5-10 min). If timing information is lost, recover it from the video record.</li>
		<li>For repeated measures using the short-term LMA method, allow mice access to food and water during the non-measurement intervals.</li>
		<li>During testing, keep any experimenters out of sight of the mice so as not to act as an external visual cue.</li>
		<li>When testing is finished, return/replace nesting/enrichment material, to reduce the potential for development of anxiety-like behavior 8.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Short-term LMA analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Store the video recordings from the testing session to an archival media compatible with the VTS used. For Ethovision XT 7, a hard drive disk (HDD) is used.</li>
		<li>Replay the videos in the VTS using its associated media player, analyzing the videos in real-time. In Figure 1, the detection variables were: 2 cm/sec begins tracking; 1.75 cm/sec halts tracking.</li>
		<li>Initially, choose the entire cage floor as the region of interest (ROI) for tracking. For advanced analyses, such as assessment of thigmotaxis, create multiple intra-cage ROIs.</li>
		<li>For high-throughput studies, analyze all cages within the video simultaneously with individual all-cage floor ROIs.</li>
		<li>Use the VTS to calculate the total distance moved (cm), velocity of movement (cm/sec) and duration of movement (sec). For Ethovision XT 7, export the data generated into Microsoft Excel for storage and additional analysis.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Long-term LMA Testing Set Up and Procedure
<ol>
	<li>Long-term LMA testing cage construction
	<ol>
		<li>Cut a 5.5 cm diameter hole in the short-end wall of a standard mouse cage. Create a covering for the hole with &frac14; in galvanized steel mesh. Cut the mesh, creating several &frac12; in openings to allow mouse access to food. Burnish any cut mesh to remove sharp edges.</li>
		<li>Use additional mesh to create an external hopper directly connected to the mesh used to cover the 5.5 cm opening. Connect the hopper to the mesh used to cover the hole, and attach the assembly to the cage using aluminum rivets.</li>
		<li>Construct a water bottle from a standard 50 ml conical (Corning) and a 1-hole rubber stopper (Fisher) that is over-drilled to allow for insertion of no-drip sipper tube (Sta-Pure Systems). Secure the water bottle to the cage with Velcro tape (3M) and insert the sipper tube through the mesh covered opening.</li>
		<li>During long-term LMA testing, cover cages with clear &frac14; in Plexiglas with 11 x &frac14; in diameter holes to support appropriate ventilation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Long-term LMA testing room
	<ol>
		<li>Long-term LMA testing room set up is identical to short-term LMA. See section 1.2 for procedure.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Long-term LMA videography
	<ol>
		<li>Center and place a ceiling-mounted infrared, security-style, camera directly linked to a PC above the recording area in the testing room. Only record the number of cages at once that results in individual cage resolution within the capability of the VTS used (e.g. Ethovision XT 7 can simultaneously track 8 mice in real-time).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Long-term LMA testing procedure
	<ol>
		<li>Test long-term LMA during the active/dark phase of the light cycle. Make sure the time relative to the light cycle is the same across all groups, as LMA follows a crepuscular pattern with more activity during the early and later periods of the dark cycle 1. Test both experimental and control subjects in each group of recorded mice to ensure minimization of potential effects of temporal differences in LMA.</li>
		<li>Individually house and acclimate the test mice in the modified cages for at least 24 hr.</li>
		<li>Place the cage dividers and cages (containing individual mice) directly under the camera. Remove all nesting/enrichment material from the cages to ensure an unobstructed of view of the mouse. Mouse burrowing into the nesting material will interfere with the ability of the VTS to track the mouse. Place a clear Plexiglas lid on each of the cages to be recorded.</li>
		<li>When recording several cages at once, be sure the resolution is compatible with the chosen VTS. To ease VTS analysis, position cages identically within each divider (i.e. upper right hand corner).</li>
		<li>Long-term LMA testing is generally analyzed in real-time, and a video record is usually not created. A video record can be recorded by using a secondary camera or via a DVD recorder linked to the primary camera. Be sure to keep detailed records of individual mouse and group information.</li>
		<li>Set up the VTS for real-time analysis. The entire cage floor should encompass the ROI for tracking. Set up ROIs for all cages being recorded. Use the VTS to calculate the total distance moved (cm), velocity of movement (cm/sec) and duration of movement (sec). In Figure 2, the detection variables were: 2 cm/sec begins tracking; 1.75 cm/sec halts tracking.</li>
		<li>Begin recording mouse long-term LMA. Monitor the duration of long-term LMA testing via the clock associated with the analyzing computer.</li>
		<li>During testing, keep all experimenters out of sight of the mice so as not to act as an external visual cue.</li>
		<li>When testing is finished, return/replace nesting/enrichment material, to reduce the potential for development of anxiety-like behavior 8.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Long-term LMA analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Long-term LMA analysis occurs in real-time without the generation of a video record. Export the data into Microsoft Excel for storage and analysis, if using Ethovision XT 7.</li>
		<li>To generate a video record for long-term LMA, use a secondary camera. Be sure the secondary camera has ample storage capacity sufficient to store the potentially lengthy recording(s).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Goulding, E. H., Schenk, A. K., Juneja, P., MacKay, A. W., Wade, J. M., Tecott, L. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+robust+automated+system+elucidates+mouse+home+cage+behavioral+structure.">A robust automated system elucidates mouse home cage behavioral structure.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 20575-20582 (2008).</li><li>Kent, S., Bluth&#233;, R. M., Kelley, K. W., Dantzer, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sickness+behavior+as+a+new+target+for+drug+development.">Sickness behavior as a new target for drug development.</a> Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 13, 24-28 (1992).</li><li>Dantzer, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytokine,+sickness+behavior,+and+depression.">Cytokine, sickness behavior, and depression.</a> Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 29, 247-264 (2009).</li><li>Godbout, J. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exaggerated+neuroinflammation+and+sickness+behavior+in+aged+mice+following+activation+of+the+peripheral+innate+immune+system.">Exaggerated neuroinflammation and sickness behavior in aged mice following activation of the peripheral innate immune system.</a> FASEB J. 19, 1329-1331 (2005).</li><li>York, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+biobehavioral+and+neuroimmune+impact+of+low-dose+ionizing+radiation.">The biobehavioral and neuroimmune impact of low-dose ionizing radiation.</a> Brain Behav. Immun. 26, 218-227 (2012).</li><li>York, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Individually+ventilated+cages+cause+chronic+low-grade+hypoxia+impacting+mice+hematologically+and+behaviorally.">Individually ventilated cages cause chronic low-grade hypoxia impacting mice hematologically and behaviorally.</a> Brain Behav. Immun. 26, 951-958 (2012).</li><li>Jennings, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Refining+rodent+husbandry:+the+mouse.+Report+of+the+Rodent+Refinement+Working+Party.">Refining rodent husbandry: the mouse. Report of the Rodent Refinement Working Party.</a> Lab. Anim. 32, 233-259 (1998).</li><li>York, J. M., Blevins, N. A., Baynard, T., Freund, G. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+testing+methods+in+psychoneuroimmunology.">Mouse testing methods in psychoneuroimmunology.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 934, 243-276 (2012).</li><li>Dantzer, R., O'Connor, J. C., Freund, G. G., Johnson, R. W., Kelley, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+inflammation+to+sickness+and+depression:+when+the+immune+system+subjugates+the+brain.">From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain.</a> Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 46-56 (2008).</li><li>Crawley, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+phenotyping+of+rodents.">Behavioral phenotyping of rodents.</a> Comp. Med. 53, 140-146 (2003).</li><li>Karelina, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Social+isolation+alters+neuroinflammatory+response+to+stroke.">Social isolation alters neuroinflammatory response to stroke.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 5895-5900 (2009).</li></ol>

Authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Symptoms of sickness in mice include lethargy, loss of interest in social and environmental surroundings, malaise and anorexia 2-3. In mice and other rodents, LMA can be used to evaluate sickness after immune activation 4-5. Additionally, long-term LMA offers the ability to track movement over a 24 hr (or greater) period, allowing analysis of treatment-induced alterations in circadian behavior or disturbances in sleep/wake patterns. LMA offers several advantages over other tests for sickness since i...

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="586">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21">Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="276">
			<td height="276">Video camera</td>
			<td>Sony</td>
			<td>HDR-XR500V</td>
			<td>Other, similar video cameras may work as well. The file storage format (codec/container) must be compatible with the VTS used. It is recommended when initially establishing a VTS to choose the VTS first and work with the vendor in choosing an appropriate camera, especially with respects to file format and video resolution compatibility.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="331">
			<td height="331">Opaque cage dividers</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Custom fabricated based on specific cage dimensions. To facilitate image analysis, dividers should be of a similar color to the cage bedding. Structurally fixed dividers are preferrable because they speed setup between multi-mice experiments, such as those involving repeated measurements. Sturdy transportable cage dividers can be constructed of 1/2 inch opaque plastic and joined via a series of cross laps.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="74">
			<td height="74">Light or Dark bedding (opposite of mouse coat color)</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Available from several laboratory animal supply distributors, depending on location.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="37">
			<td height="37">Clear Plexiglas cage tops</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Custom fabricated based on cage dimensions.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="92">
			<td height="92">Automated video tracking software (EthoVision XT 7)</td>
			<td>Noldus Information Technology</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>A variety of VTS manufacturers exist, use of other software may suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="55">
			<td height="55">PC</td>
			<td>Dell Inc.</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>See VTS software providers minimum PC .requirements</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="83">
			<td height="83">White noise generator</td>
			<td>Dohm</td>
			<td>DS</td>
			<td>A variety of white noise generators are available, depending on need.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="146">
			<td height="146">Brooder clamp lights with red light bulbs</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Several sizes and styles available. Number required depends on room size/lighting needs. Do not exceed 125 lumens in the testing room.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="62">
			<td height="62">Lab bench or butcher paper</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Paper should match or be very similar in color to the cage bedding.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mouse short- and long-term locomotor activity analyzed by video tracking software

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software (VTS) have allowed it to be coupled to LMA testing, dramatically improving specificity and sensitivity when compared to the line crossings method with manual scoring. In addition, VTS enables high-throughput experimentation. While similar to automated video tracking used for the open field test (OFT), LMA testing is unique in that it allows mice to remain in their home cage and does not utilize the anxiogenic stimulus of bright lighting during the active phase of the light-dark cycle. Traditionally, LMA has been used for short periods of time (mins), while longer movement studies (hrs-days) have often used implanted transmitters and biotelemetry. With the option of real-time tracking, long-, like short-term LMA testing, can now be conducted using videography. Long-term LMA testing requires a specialized, but easily constructed, cage so that food and water (which is usually positioned on the cage top) does not obstruct videography. Importantly, videography and VTS allows for the quantification of parameters, such as path of mouse movement, that are difficult or unfeasible to measure with line crossing and/or biotelemetry. In sum, LMA testing coupled to VTS affords a more complete description of mouse movement and the ability to examine locomotion over an extended period of time.

An example of results from a repeated measures, short-term LMA test is shown in Figure 1. This figure shows that after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration, mice housed in individually ventilated caging (IVC) recover short-term locomotor activity faster than mice housed in ambient environment caging (AEC) 6. While the initial loss of locomotor activity is similar between LPS injected groups, the recovery to basal LMA is more rapid in IVC-housed mice as was velocity of movement (Figu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software at JoVE.com

Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice. Coupling of video tracking software (VTS) and LMA allows for the improvement of specificity and sensitivity, especially when compared with the manual, line crossing method of LMA analysis. Additionally VTS allows long-term tracking of mouse LMA.

Locomotor  activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice  and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software ...

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20.0K Views.  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice. Coupling of video tracking software (VTS) and LMA allows for the improvement of specificity and sensitivity, especially when compared with the manual, line crossing method of LMA analysis. Additionally VTS allows long-term tracking of mouse LMA.

Video: Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software

Long-term Potentiation of Perforant Pathway-dentate Gyrus Synapse in Freely Behaving Mice

Studies of long-term potentiation of synaptic efficacy, an activity-dependent synaptic phenomenon having properties that make it attractive as a potential cellular mechanism underlying learning and information storage, have long been used to elucidate the physiology of various neuronal circuits in the hippocampus, amygdala, and other limbic and cortical structures. With this in mind, transgenic mouse models of neurological diseases represent useful platforms to conduct long-term&#160;potentiation (LTP) studies to develop a greater understanding of the role of genes in normal and abnormal synaptic communication in neuronal networks involved in learning, emotion and information processing. This article describes methodologies for reliably inducing LTP in the freely behaving mouse. These methodologies can be used in studies of transgenic and knockout freely&#160;behaving mouse models of neurodegenerative diseases.

Transgenic and knockout mouse models of neurological diseases are useful for studying the role of genes in normal and abnormal neurophysiology. This article describes methodologies which can be used to study long-term potentiation, a cellular mechanism which may underlie learning and memory, in transgenic and knockout freely&#160;behaving mouse models of neuropathology.

Studies of long-term potentiation of synaptic efficacy, an activity-dependent synaptic phenomenon having properties that make it attractive as a potential ...

Behavioral and Locomotor Measurements Using an Open Field Activity Monitoring System for Skeletal Muscle Diseases

The open field activity monitoring system comprehensively assesses locomotor and behavioral activity levels of mice. It is a useful tool for assessing locomotive impairment in animal models of neuromuscular disease and efficacy of therapeutic drugs that may improve locomotion and/or muscle function. The open field activity measurement provides a different measure than muscle strength, which is commonly assessed by grip strength measurements. It can also show how drugs may affect other body systems as well when used with additional outcome measures. In addition, measures such as total distance traveled mirror the 6 min walk test, a clinical trial outcome measure. However, open field activity monitoring is also associated with significant challenges: Open field activity measurements vary according to animal strain, age, sex, and circadian rhythm. In addition, room temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, and even odor can affect assessment outcomes. Overall, this manuscript provides a well-tested and standardized open field activity SOP for preclinical trials in animal models of neuromuscular diseases. We provide a discussion of important considerations, typical results, data analysis, and detail the strengths and weaknesses of open field testing. In addition, we provide recommendations for optimal study design when using open field activity in a preclinical trial.

Open field activity levels are used to assess locomotive and behavioral activity levels. This protocol provides a well-designed, standardized protocol to use in preclinical trials for neuromuscular disorders.

The open field activity monitoring system comprehensively assesses locomotor and behavioral activity levels of mice. It is a useful tool for assessing ...

Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. However, studying human locomotor learning can be challenging. During infancy and childhood, the neuromuscular system is quite immature, and it is unlikely that locomotor learning during early stages of development is governed by the same mechanisms as in adulthood. By the time humans reach maturity, they are so proficient at walking that it is difficult to come up with a sufficiently novel task to study de novo locomotor learning. The split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed, enables the study of both short- (i.e., immediate) and long-term (i.e., over minutes-days; a form of motor learning) gait modifications in response to a novel change in the walking environment. Individuals can easily be screened for previous exposure to the split-belt treadmill, thus ensuring that all experimental participants have no (or equivalent) prior experience. This paper describes a typical split-belt treadmill adaptation protocol that incorporates testing methods to quantify locomotor learning and generalization of this learning to other walking contexts. A discussion of important considerations for designing split-belt treadmill experiments follows, including factors like treadmill belt speeds, rest breaks, and distractors. Additionally, potential but understudied confounding variables (e.g., arm movements, prior experience) are considered in the discussion.

We describe a protocol for investigating human locomotor adaptation using the split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed. We specifically focus on a paradigm designed to test the generalization of adapted locomotor patterns to different walking contexts (e.g., gait speeds, walking environments).

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. ...

A Novel Single Animal Motor Function Tracking System Using Simple, Readily Available Software

We have recently demonstrated that implanting intracortical microelectrodes in the motor corteces of rats&#160;results in immediate and lasting motor deficits. Motor impairments were manually quantified through an open field grid test to measure the gross motor function and through a ladder test to measure the fine motor function. Here, we discuss a technique for the automated quantification of the video-recorded tests using our custom Capadona Behavioral Video Analysis System: Grid and Ladder Test, or BVAS. Leveraging simple and readily available coding software (see the Table of Materials), this program allows for the tracking of a single animal on both the open field grid and the ladder tests. In open field grid tracking, the code thresholds the video for intensity, tracks the position of the rat over the 3 min duration of the grid test, and analyzes the path. It then computes and returns measurements for the total distance traveled, the maximum velocity achieved, the number of left- and right-handed turns, and the total number of grid lines crossed by the rat. In ladder tracking, the code again thresholds the video for intensity, tracks the movement of the rat across the ladder, and returns calculated measurements including the time it took the rat to cross the ladder, the number of paw slips occurring below the plane of the ladder rungs, and the incidence of failures due to stagnation or reversals. We envision that the BVAS developed here can be employed for the analysis of motor function in a variety of applications, including many injury or disease models.

The current study aimed to automate the quantification of motor deficits in rats. The initial evaluation model assesses motor loss resulting from an intracortical microelectrode implantation in the motor cortex. We report on the development and use of a tracking algorithm using easily adaptable, simple, and readily available coding software.

We have recently demonstrated that implanting intracortical microelectrodes in the motor corteces of rats&#160;results in immediate and lasting motor ...

Automated, Long-term Behavioral Assay for Cognitive Functions in Multiple Genetic Models of Alzheimer's Disease, Using IntelliCage

Multiple factors&#8212;such as aging and genes&#8212;are frequently associated with cognitive decline. Genetically modified mouse models of cognitive decline, such as Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), have become a promising tool to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and promote the therapeutic advances. An important step is the validation and characterization of expected behavioral abnormality in the models, in the case of AD, cognitive decline. The long-term behavioral investigations of laboratory animals to study the effect of aging demand substantial efforts from researchers. The IntelliCage system is a high-throughput and cost-effective test battery for mice that eliminates the need for daily human handling. Here, we describe how the system is utilized in the long-term phenotyping of a genetic Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, specifically focusing on the cognitive functions. The experiment employs repeated battery of tests that assess spatial learning and executive functions. This cost-effective age-dependent phenotyping allows us to identify the transient and/or permanent effects of genes on various cognitive aspects.

Automated, Long-term Behavioral Assay for Cognitive Functions in Multiple Genetic Models of Alzheimer&#039;s Disease, Using IntelliCage

This paper describes a protocol for cognitive assessments for genetic models of the Alzheimer&#39;s disease using the IntelliCage system, which is a high throughput automated behavioral monitoring system with operant conditioning.

Multiple factors&#8212;such as aging and genes&#8212;are frequently associated with cognitive decline. Genetically modified mouse models of cognitive ...

Classical Short-Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in One-Year-Old Children

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a puff of air to the cornea). Eyeblink conditioning is often used experimentally to detect abnormalities in cerebellar-dependent learning and memory that underlies this type of associative learning. While experiments in adults and older children are relatively simple to administer using commercial equipment, eyeblink conditioning in infants is more challenging due to their poor compliance, which makes correct positioning of the equipment difficult. To achieve conditioning in one-year-old infants, a custom-made or an adapted commercial system can be used to deliver the air puff to the infant's cornea. The main challenge lies in successfully detecting and classifying the behavioral responses. We report that automated blink detection methods are unreliable in this population, and that conditioning experiments should be analyzed using frame-by-frame analysis of supplementary video camera recordings. This method can be applied to study developmental changes in eyeblink conditioning and to examine whether this paradigm can detect children with neurological disorders.

This protocol describes an eyeblink conditioning paradigm appropriate for experiments with one-year-old infants. Commercial or custom-made equipment can be used to deliver the stimuli, and data collection and analysis should be performed on the video recordings.

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a ...

Measuring Active and Passive Tameness Separately in Mice

Domesticated animals such as dogs and laboratory mice show a high level of tameness, which is important for humans to handle them easily. Tameness has two behavioral components: a reluctance to avoid humans (passive tameness) and a motivation to approach humans (active tameness). To quantify these components in mice, we previously developed behavioral tests for active tameness, passive tameness, and the willingness to stay on a human hand, each designed to be completed within 3 min. The data obtained were used for selective breeding, with a large number of mice analyzed per generation. The active tameness test measures the movement of the mouse toward a human hand and the contact it engages in. The passive tameness test measures the duration of time that a mouse tolerates human touch. In the stay-on-hand test, a mouse is placed on a human hand and touched slowly using the thumb of that hand; the duration of time that the animal remains on the hand is measured. Here, we describe the test set-up and apparatus, explain the procedures, and discuss the appropriate data analysis. Finally, we explain how to interpret the results.

Tameness in animals includes a reduction of avoidance responses to humans (passive tameness) and an increase in active approaches to humans (active tameness). Here, we describe detailed protocols for three behavioral tests (active tameness, passive tameness, and stay-on-hand tests) to separately measure the active and passive tameness of mice.

Domesticated animals such as dogs and laboratory mice show a high level of tameness, which is important for humans to handle them easily. Tameness has two ...

Elevated Plus Maze Test Combined with Video Tracking Software to Investigate the Anxiolytic Effect of Exogenous Ketogenic Supplements

The overall goal of this study is to describe the methodology of the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in combination with a video tracking software. The purpose of the method is to document the effect of various potential anxiolytic treatments on laboratory rodent models. The EPM test is based on the rodents&#39; proclivity toward protected, enclosed dark spaces and unconditioned fear of open spaces and heights, and their innate intense motivation to explore novel environments. The EPM test is a widely used behavioral test for investigating the anxiolytic or anxiogenic responses of rodents given drugs that are known to affect behavior. Observation demonstrating a decreased proportion of time spent on closed arms, an increased proportion of time spent on open arms, a reduced number of entries to closed arms, and an elevated number of entries to open arms measured by the EPM test may reflect reduced anxiety levels. Using this method, the effect of exogenous ketone supplements on anxiety-related behavior is tested in Sprague Dawley (SPD) rats. Exogenous ketone supplements are chronically fed to the rats for 83 days or subchronically and acutely orally gavaged, daily for 7 days, before conducting the EPM test. Behavioral data collection is performed using the SMART video tracking system by a blinded observer at the end of the treatments. The main findings indicate that the EPM test is an effective method to detect the ketone supplement-induced anxiolytic effect and can be considered a sensitive measure to assess changes in anxiety behavior associated with drug- or metabolic-based therapies.

Here, we present a protocol to investigate changes in the anxiety level of rodent animal models. The elevated plus maze (EPM) test, used together with a video tracking software, provides a reliable method to document the effect of various potential anxiolytic treatments in preclinical laboratory scenarios.

The overall goal of this study is to describe the methodology of the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in combination with a video tracking software. The ...

Behavioral Tracking and Neuromast Imaging of Mexican Cavefish

Cave-dwelling animals have evolved a series of morphological and behavioral traits to adapt to their perpetually dark and food-sparse environments. Among these traits, foraging behavior is one of the useful windows into functional advantages of behavioral trait evolution. Presented herein are updated methods for analyzing vibration attraction behavior (VAB: an adaptive foraging behavior) and imaging of associated mechanosensors of cave-adapted tetra, Astyanax mexicanus. In addition, methods are presented for high-throughput tracking of a series of additional cavefish behaviors including hyperactivity and sleep-loss. Cavefish also show asociality, repetitive behavior and higher anxiety. Therefore, cavefish serve as an animal model for evolved behaviors. These methods use free-software and custom-made scripts that can be applied to other types of behavior. These methods provide practical and cost-effective alternatives to commercially available tracking software.

Here, we present methods for high-throughput study of a series of the Mexican cavefish behaviors and vital staining of a mechanosensory system. These methods use free-software and custom-made scripts, providing a practical and cost-effective method for the studies of behaviors.

Cave-dwelling animals have evolved a series of morphological and behavioral traits to adapt to their perpetually dark and food-sparse environments. Among ...

Automated Measurements of Sleep and Locomotor Activity in Mexican Cavefish

Across phyla, sleep is characterized by highly conserved behavioral characteristics that include elevated arousal threshold, rebound following sleep deprivation, and consolidated periods of behavioral immobility. The Mexican cavefish, Astyanax mexicanus (A. mexicanus), is a model for studying trait evolution in response to environmental perturbation. A. mexicanus exist as in eyed surface-dwelling forms and multiple blind cave-dwelling populations that have robust morphological and behavioral differences. Sleep loss has occurred in multiple, independently-evolved cavefish populations. This protocol describes a methodology for quantifying sleep and locomotor activity in A. mexicanus cave and surface fish. A cost-effective video monitoring system allows for behavioral imaging of individually-housed larval or adult fish for periods of a week or longer. The system can be applied to fish aged 4 days post fertilization through adulthood. The approach can also be adapted for measuring the effects of social interactions on sleep by recording multiple fish in a single arena. Following behavioral recordings, data is analyzed using automated tracking software and sleep analysis is processed using customized scripts that quantify multiple sleep variables including duration, bout length, and bout number. This system can be applied to measure sleep, circadian behavior, and locomotor activity in almost any fish species including zebrafish and sticklebacks.

This protocol details the methodology for quantifying locomotor behavior and sleep in the Mexican cavefish. Previous analyses are extended to measure these behaviors in socially-housed fish. This system can be widely applied to study sleep and activity in other fish species.

Across phyla, sleep is characterized by highly conserved behavioral characteristics that include elevated arousal threshold, rebound following sleep ...