This work was supported by a National Institutes of Health grant awarded to TAP (R15MH098246).

This procedure requires the use of animals; these procedures were approved by the Oberlin College Institutional Animal Care and Use committee and are in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals46.
1. 5CSRTT Apparatus
<ol>
	<li>A schematic of the 5CSRTT apparatus is provided in Figure 1.
	<ol>
		<li>The 5CSRTT apparatus consists of an operant conditioning chamber (30.5 x&#160;24.1 x&#160;29.2 cm) with 2 Plexiglas sidewalls, and a stainless steel grid floor.</li>
		<li>The aluminum front wall is rounded and contains five nose poke apertures (2.5 x&#160;2.2 x&#160;2.2 cm each); each aperture is equipped with a light emitting diode (LED) and an infrared sensor capable of detecting the insertion of the rats&#8217; nose.</li>
		<li>The aluminum back wall contains the food magazine; this is connected to a pellet dispenser and is equipped with an infrared sensor and a small incandescent light.</li>
		<li>An incandescent house light, capable of illuminating the entire chamber is affixed near the top of the back wall.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>House the 5CSRTT apparatus within a ventilated, sound attenuated operant conditioning chamber.</li>
	<li>Use a PC computer to control the operant chamber and to collect data.</li>
</ol>
2. Animal Housing and Preparation
<ol>
	<li>The procedure requires use of experimental animals; obtain approval from the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) prior to commencing any experiments.</li>
	<li>House rats in pairs.
	<ol>
		<li>Maintain rats on a 14:10 light/dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 am) in a room with a constant temperature of 22&#160;&#177; 1&#160;&#176;C.</li>
		<li>Allow rats free access to water while in their home cages, but food restrict them.</li>
		<li>Food restrict rats to 85-90% of their free feeding weight two to five days prior to the start of magazine training and throughout 5CSRTT training and testing. Feed rats after daily training sessions and weigh them daily to ensure that they are gaining weight (~5 g/week).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. 5CSRTT Procedure
<ol>
	<li>General 5CSRTT Training Considerations
	<ol>
		<li>Train rats at a standard time of day a minimum of 5 days per week; training occurs over many stages (see Table 1) and takes several weeks.</li>
		<li>Train and test rats in the same operant chamber (see sections 3.2-3.5 below); small deviations in the rats&#8217; environment can affect their performance.</li>
		<li>At the end of each session clean all surfaces of the chamber with water containing the disinfectant sodium hypochlorite (or another disinfectant after consultation with your veterinarian).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Magazine Training
	<ol>
		<li>Introduce sugar pellets (45 mg) to rats in their home cage prior to the first session. This minimizes neophobia and ensures rats will retrieve sugar pellets from the food magazine.</li>
		<li>Place rats in operant chamber (fans on) with aperture holes occluded. Allow rats to habituate to chamber for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Deliver sixty sugar pellets to magazine on either a fixed interval 20 sec (FI-20, day 1) schedule or a FI-30 schedule (day 2). 
		Note: The houselight can remain illuminated for the duration of the session and the magazine light should be illuminated upon pellet delivery and can remain illuminated until the pellet is retrieved.</li>
		<li>At the end of the session note whether sugar pellets are consumed; continue training for at least 2 days or until all of the pellets are consumed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>5CSRTT Training
	<ol>
		<li>Figure 2 provides a schematic of a single 5CSRTT trial.</li>
		<li>Place each rat in an operant chamber with fans on. Allow rats to habituate to chamber for 5 min.</li>
		<li>At the end of the habituation period, illuminate the magazine light and deliver one sugar pellet. The first trial begins when this pellet is retrieved.</li>
		<li>Begin each trial with an inter trial interval (ITI) during which only the house light is illuminated. At the end of the ITI, pseudo randomly illuminate one of the aperture lights for the prescribed stimulus duration. Allow the rat time to respond to the stimulus presentation; the time the rat is allowed to respond is the limited hold (LH).</li>
		<li>Nose poke responses into the illuminated aperture result in the delivery of a sugar pellet to the magazine and illumination of the magazine light; such responses are considered correct responses. Extinguish the magazine light and initiate the next trial upon pellet retrieval.</li>
		<li>Nose poke responses into unlit apertures (incorrect responses) and failures to respond during the LH (omissions) result in a time out (TO). Extinguish the houselight during the TO. Signal the beginning of the next trial at the end of the TO by illuminating the houselight.</li>
		<li>Score nose poke responses during the ITI as premature responses; punish these responses with a TO period. Reinitiate the same trial after a TO caused by a premature response.</li>
		<li>End each session after 90 trials or 30 min, whichever comes first.</li>
		<li>For the first stage of training set the stimulus duration to 30 sec, the LH to 30 sec, the ITI to 2 sec and the TO to 2 sec. Adjust these parameters across training such that the stimulus duration is 1 sec and the LH, ITI and TO are all 5 sec (see Table 1). Move rats to the next training stage once they have reached the suggested training criteria. Test rats after they exhibit stable performance on the final stage. 
		Note: Sprague-Dawley rats typically reach criterion performance (~65 % accuracy, &#60; 20% omissions) within 4-8 weeks if trained 5 days per week. Different strains of rats however, have different abilities to perform the task. For example, Lister Hooded rats can attain high levels of accuracy (&#62; 80%) with fewer omissions (&#60; 20%) using a short stimulus duration (0.5 sec) (e.g., Bari et al., 2008; Mizra and Bright, 2001). It is recommended that researchers adjust stimulus parameters and criterion performance to reflect strain of rat (or mouse) used.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>5CSRTT Testing
	<ol>
		<li>Calculate baseline performance (% accuracy, % omissions, premature responses) by averaging performance on each measure across the last 3-5 sessions (see below). Use these data to divide rats into groups (if required) or as an individual rats&#8217; baseline.</li>
		<li>Use test day challenges (Table 2) to further probe behavior.</li>
		<li>For within subjects designs, intersperse training sessions with test day challenge sessions. 
		Note: Test day challenges can be used to complement examination of behavior on the standard task. These manipulations can reveal subtle changes in behavior that are not apparent after extensive training on the standard task and/or be used to gain a better understanding of the nature of a performance deficit.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>5CSRTT Performance Measures
	<ol>
		<li>Use a computer to calculate performance&#160;measures.</li>
		<li>Accuracy of responding (% accuracy): Divide the number of correct responses by the total of correct and incorrect responses. This is the primary measure of attention. 
		[# correct responses/(# correct responses+ # incorrect response)] x&#160;100</li>
		<li>Omissions: Divide the number of trials in which the rat did not respond by the total number of trials completed. % Omissions can reflect attention, but can also be influenced by sedation, motivation and motor ability, thus the interpretation of omissions depends on other performance measures. 
		[# omissions/(# omissions + # correct responses + # incorrect responses)] x&#160;100</li>
		<li>Correct Responses: Divide the number of correct responses by the total number of trials completed. 
		[# correct responses /(# omissions + # correct responses + # incorrect responses)] x&#160;100</li>
		<li>Incorrect Responses: Divide the number of incorrect responses by the total number of trials completed. 
		[# incorrect responses /(# omissions + # correct responses + # incorrect responses)] x&#160;100</li>
		<li>Premature Responses: Determine the number of responses made during the ITI. This is the primary measure of impulsive behavior.</li>
		<li>Perseverative Responses: Determine the number of nose poke responses into any aperture after the rat has made a correct response but before retrieval of the sugar pellet. This is a measure of compulsive behavior.</li>
		<li>Magazine Entries: Determine the number of nose poke responses into the magazine. This is a measure of motivation.</li>
		<li>Latency to Correct Response: Calculate the average time from the onset of the stimulus to a correct response; a measure of processing speed or decision-making.</li>
		<li>Latency to Incorrect Response: Calculate the average time from the onset of the stimulus to an incorrect response; a measure of processing speed or decision-making.</li>
		<li>Reward Retrieval Latency: Calculate the average time for a rat to retrieve the sugar pellet reward; can reflect motivation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The 5CSRTT is a widely used task to assess attention and impulse control in rodents. Attention is most commonly measured by accuracy of responding1,7,10. Because accuracy of responding does not include omissions and because both correct and incorrect responses have the same response requirement (i.e., a nose poke in an aperture), accuracy is not influenced by locomotor ability, motivation or sedation. The % omissions can also be used as a measure of attention because well trained rodents will...

The 5-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT) was developed by Trevor Robbins and colleagues at the University of Cambridge in order to understand the behavioral deficits displayed by people diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)1,2. It is based upon continuous performance tasks used to study attention in humans3; with attention being defined as the ability to allocate and sustain the focus of cognitive resources on specific stimuli or information while ignoring other information4. Although the task was originally designed for use with rats1,2, a mouse version has also been developed5,6.
The basic 5CSRTT requires rats to scan a horizontal array of five apertures for the presentation of a brief light stimulus (cue) in one of the apertures; once the rat detects the stimulus it must nose poke in the illuminated aperture to receive a sugar pellet reward. Thus, the task requires rats to both divide their attention across the 5 spatially distinct apertures and to sustain attention until the stimulus is presented in a given trial and across multiple trials in a session1,7. Attention is typically assessed by the accuracy of responses. Although the 5CSRTT was originally designed to assess attention, it is also used to assess impulsive behavior or response inhibition1,7,8: the ability to withhold pre-potent or inappropriate responding9. During the task, rats must withhold responding for the duration of the inter trial interval (ITI) and only respond once the stimulus is presented in one of the apertures1. Thus premature responses, those occurring during the ITI prior to stimulus presentation, provide a useful index of impulsive behavior.
The 5CSRTT is an incredibly flexible task&#8212;there are a number of modifications of the basic task (i.e., test day challenges) that can be implemented to more carefully examine how experimental manipulations affect behavior. For example, decreasing the stimulus duration or shortening the ITI are different mechanisms to increase the attentional load of the task and can be used to systematically assess subdomains of attention1,7,10-12. In contrast, increasing the stimulus duration minimizes the attentional demands of the task; this can be used to determine if a manipulation interferes with the ability to execute the basic response requirements of the task12. Increasing the duration of the ITI can be used to determine whether a particular manipulation affects impulsive responding1,7,8,13-15. Moreover, using test day challenges, such as those just described, can reveal deficits10 or enhancements16,17 of behavior that are not apparent in well trained rats tested using standard testing parameters.
Importantly, the 5CSRTT is amenable to combination with a number of different techniques; for example cognition has been investigated following lesions of discrete brain areas10,18-20, or selective neurotransmitter depletions2,21,22. Behavioral pharmacological investigations have used either systemic16,17,23-28 or discrete intracranial administration of drugs29-32. Moreover performance is easily assessed after acute12,16,17,29-32 and chronic drug administration13,14,23,33. The effects of task performance on neurotransmitter release34 and metabolic activity35 in discrete brain areas have also been assessed. In addition, performance on the task can be used to separate rats into groups based on baseline attentional performance30,31 or levels of impulsivity15,32. Finally, with the advent of a mouse version of the 5CSRTT5,6, the task has been used to investigate the genetic contributions to attention and impulse control5,36-39.

Because the 5CSRTT assesses multiple cognitive functions simultaneously and is amenable to use in combination of a variety of pharmacological, molecular and genetic approaches it has been routinely used to assess cognitive dysfunction in the context of animal models of psychiatric and neurological disorders. For example, the 5CSRTT has been used to investigate the neurobiology underlying the cognitive disruptions in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)37,40,41, schizophrenia23,33,42, drug addiction13,14,43-45, Alzheimer&#8217;s disease18,39, Parkinson&#8217;s disease36, and Huntington&#8217;s disease37.

This protocol provides guidelines for training rats on the 5CSRTT. Because a number of performance measures can be collected, we describe how common patterns of results should be interpreted. In addition several common modifications to the basic protocol, the test day challenges, are described.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="960">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:192px;">Five Hole Nose Poke Wall Chamber Package</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Med-Associates</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">MED-NP5L-D1</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Alternatively one could use the standard package (Catalog #:MED-NP5L-B1) 
			Deluxe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dustless Precision Pellet</td>
			<td>Bio-Serv</td>
			<td>F0021</td>
			<td>45 mg Purified</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the 5-choice serial reaction time task: a task of attention and impulse control for rodents

This protocol describes the 5-choice serial reaction time task, which is an operant based task used to study attention and impulse control in rodents. Test day challenges, modifications to the standard task, can be used to systematically tax the neural systems controlling either attention or impulse control. Importantly, these challenges have consistent effects on behavior across laboratories in intact animals and can reveal either enhancements or deficits in cognitive function that are not apparent when rats are only tested on the standard task. The variety of behavioral measures that are collected can be used to determine if other factors (i.e., sedation, motivation deficits, locomotor impairments) are contributing to changes in performance. The versatility of the 5CSRTT is further enhanced because it is amenable to combination with pharmacological, molecular, and genetic techniques.

Manipulations of the 5CSRTT that Probe Visuospatial Attention 
One approach to varying the attentional demands of the task is to alter the duration of the stimulus. As the stimulus duration decreases, % accuracy decreases (Figure 3A) and % omissions increase (Figure 3B; adapted from 12). Thus shorter stimulus durations increase the attentional demands of the task and longer stimulus durations decrease the attentional demands of the task. Chang...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task: A Task of Attention and Impulse Control for Rodents at JoVE.com

The 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task: A Task of Attention and Impulse Control for Rodents

This protocol describes the 5-choice serial reaction time task, which is an operant based task used to study attention and impulse control in rodents. Test day challenges, which are modifications of the standard task, increase flexibility of the task and can be combined with other manipulations to more fully characterize behavior.

This protocol describes the 5-choice serial reaction time task, which is an operant based task used to study attention and impulse control in rodents. ...

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45.8K Views.  Oberlin College. This protocol describes the 5-choice serial reaction time task, which is an operant based task used to study attention and impulse control in rodents. Test day challenges, which are modifications of the standard task, increase flexibility of the task and can be combined with other manipulations to more fully characterize behavior.

Video: The 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time Task: A Task of Attention and Impulse Control for Rodents

Using the Threat Probability Task to Assess Anxiety and Fear During Uncertain and Certain Threat

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical components. Both anxiety and fear can be studied in the laboratory by measuring the potentiation of the startle reflex. The startle reflex is a defensive reflex that is potentiated when an organism is threatened and the need for defense is high. The startle reflex is assessed via electromyography (EMG) in the orbicularis oculi muscle elicited by brief, intense, bursts of acoustic white noise (i.e., &#8220;startle probes&#8221;). Startle potentiation is calculated as the increase in startle response magnitude during presentation of sets of visual threat cues that signal delivery of mild electric shock relative to sets of matched cues that signal the absence of shock (no-threat cues). In the Threat Probability Task, fear is measured via startle potentiation to high probability (100% cue-contingent shock; certain) threat cues whereas anxiety is measured via startle potentiation to low probability (20% cue-contingent shock; uncertain) threat cues. Measurement of startle potentiation during the Threat Probability Task provides an objective and easily implemented alternative to assessment of negative affect via self-report or other methods (e.g., neuroimaging) that may be inappropriate or impractical for some researchers. Startle potentiation has been studied rigorously in both animals (e.g., rodents, non-human primates) and humans which facilitates animal-to-human translational research. Startle potentiation during certain and uncertain threat provides an objective measure of negative affective and distinct emotional states (fear, anxiety) to use in research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse and broadly in affective science. As such, it has been used extensively by clinical scientists interested in psychopathology etiology and by affective scientists interested in individual differences in emotion.

Potentiation of the startle reflex is measured via electromyography of the orbicularis oculi muscle during low (uncertain) and high (certain) probability electric shock threat in the Threat Probability Task. This provides an objective measure of distinct negative emotional states (fear/anxiety) for research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse, and broad affective science.

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical ...

fMRI Validation of fNIRS Measurements During a Naturalistic Task

We present a method to compare brain activity recorded with near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in a dance video game task to that recorded in a reduced version of the task using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Recently, it has been shown that fNIRS can accurately record functional brain activities equivalent to those concurrently recorded with functional magnetic resonance imaging for classic psychophysical tasks and simple finger tapping paradigms. However, an often quoted benefit of fNIRS is that the technique allows for studying neural mechanisms of complex, naturalistic behaviors that are not possible using the constrained environment of fMRI. Our goal was to extend the findings of previous studies that have shown high correlation between concurrently recorded fNIRS and fMRI signals to compare neural recordings obtained in fMRI procedures to those separately obtained in naturalistic fNIRS experiments. Specifically, we developed a modified version of the dance video game Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) to be compatible with both fMRI and fNIRS imaging procedures. In this methodology we explain the modifications to the software and hardware for compatibility with each technique as well as the scanning and calibration procedures used to obtain representative results. The results of the study show a task-related increase in oxyhemoglobin in both modalities and demonstrate that it is possible to replicate the findings of fMRI using fNIRS in a naturalistic task. This technique represents a methodology to compare fMRI imaging paradigms which utilize a reduced-world environment to fNIRS in closer approximation to naturalistic, full-body activities and behaviors. Further development of this technique may apply to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson&#8217;s disease, late states of dementia, or those with magnetic susceptibility which are contraindicated for fMRI scanning.

We present a method to compare functional brain activity recorded during a naturalistic task using fNIRS with activity recorded during fMRI.

We present a method to compare brain activity recorded with near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in a dance video game task to that recorded in a reduced ...

A Dual Task Procedure Combined with Rapid Serial Visual Presentation to Test Attentional Blink for Nontargets

When viewers search for targets in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream, if two targets are presented within about 500 msec of each other, the first target may be easy to spot but the second is likely to be missed. This phenomenon of attentional blink (AB) has been widely studied to probe the temporal capacity of attention for detecting visual targets. However, with the typical procedure of AB experiments, it is not possible to examine how the processing of non-target items in RSVP may be affected by attention. This paper describes a novel dual task procedure combined with RSVP to test effects of AB for nontargets at varied stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs). In an exemplar experiment, a target category was first displayed, followed by a sequence of 8 nouns. If one of the nouns belonged to the target category, participants would respond &#8216;yes&#8217; at the end of the sequence, otherwise participants would respond &#8216;no&#8217;. Two 2-alternative forced choice memory tasks followed the response to determine if participants remembered the words immediately before or after the target, as well as a random word from another part of the sequence. In a second exemplar experiment, the same design was used, except that 1) the memory task was counterbalanced into two groups with SOAs of either 120 or 240 msec and 2) three memory tasks followed the sequence and tested remembrance for nontarget nouns in the sequence that could be anywhere from 3 items prior the target noun position to 3 items following the target noun position. Representative results from a previously published study demonstrate that our procedure can be used to examine divergent effects of attention that not only enhance targets but also suppress nontargets. Here we show results from a representative participant that replicated the previous finding.&#160;

This paper describes a novel dual task procedure combined with Rapid Serial Visual Presentation to look at attentional blink at varied stimulus onset asynchronies. This experimental procedure differed from others in that it tested attentional blink for nontargets.

When viewers search for targets in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream, if two targets are presented within about 500 msec of each other, the ...

Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal

This protocol is based on the task interruption and resumption paradigm, the premise of which is that active goals lead to persistent behavior and thus a higher resumption rate after a period of delay or interruption. The task interruption and resumption protocol described in this research is tailored to test the activation of cognitive goals (e.g., a goal to think more abstractly). Cognitive goals may be pursued even during the interruption period; thus, to prevent this, the protocol involves cognitive distraction. The protocol consists of several stages. Specifically, the initial stage includes the goal activation process, where the treatment (versus control) condition receives a manipulation to activate the cognitive goal being tested by the researcher. In the next stage, participants are presented with the introduction of a task that is perceived to either satisfy or not satisfy the cognitive goal of interest. Importantly, this task is interrupted a few seconds after it begins. The task interruption forces a delay period and introduces a cognitive distraction to prevent the automatic pursuit and fulfillment of the cognitive goal. After the interruption period, participants are given a choice between resuming the interrupted task and abandoning the interrupted task to complete an alternative task instead. Among participants whose cognitive goals had been activated at the earlier stage, the task resumption rate should be higher if the task was perceived as an opportunity to satisfy (versus not satisfy) the goal. Such a finding would provide empirical evidence that the cognitive goal has been activated and pursued. In previous research, this protocol has been used to test whether causal uncertainty activates an abstract thinking goal. Adapting the protocol to test the activation of other cognitive goals is also discussed.

This protocol was designed to test the activation and pursuit of cognitive goals (e.g., an abstract thinking goal) using the task interruption and resumption paradigm. The protocol is suitable for cognitive goals that are automatically pursued once activated, as the distraction procedure prevents goal pursuit during the interruption period.

This protocol is based on the task interruption and resumption paradigm, the premise of which is that active goals lead to persistent behavior and thus a ...

The Knob Supination Task: A Semi-automated Method for Assessing Forelimb Function in Rats

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity largely use video analysis of reaching or food manipulation. While these tasks are easy to implement and are robust across disease models, they are subjective and laborious for the experimenter. Automating traditional tasks or creating new automated tasks can make the tasks more efficient, objective, and quantitative. Since rats are less dexterous than primates, central nervous system (CNS) injury produces more subtle deficits in dexterity, however, supination is highly affected in rodents and crucial to hand function in primates. Therefore, we designed a semi-automated task that measures forelimb supination in rats. Rats are trained to reach and grasp a knob-shaped manipulandum and turn the manipulandum in supination to receive a reward. Rats can acquire the skill within 20 &plusmn; 5 days. While the early part of training is highly supervised, much of the training is done without direct supervision. The task reliably and reproducibly captures subtle deficits after injury and shows functional recovery that accurately reflects clinical recovery curves. Analysis of data is performed by specialized software through a graphical user interface that is designed to be intuitive. We also give solutions to common problems encountered during training, and show that minor corrections to behavior early in training produce reliable acquisition of supination. Thus, the knob supination task provides efficient and quantitative evaluation of a critical movement for dexterity in rats.

This manuscript describes a semi-automated task that quantifies supination in rats. Rats reach, grasp, and supinate a spherical manipulandum. The rat is rewarded with a pellet if the turn angle exceeds a criterion set by the user. This task increases throughput, sensitivity to injury, and objectivity compared to traditional tasks.

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity ...

The "Motor" in Implicit Motor Sequence Learning: A Foot-stepping Serial Reaction Time Task

This protocol describes a modified serial reaction time (SRT) task used to study implicit motor sequence learning. Unlike the classic SRT task that involves finger-pressing movements while sitting, the modified SRT task requires participants to step with both feet while maintaining a standing posture. This stepping task necessitates whole body actions that impose postural challenges. The foot-stepping task complements the classic SRT task in several ways. The foot-stepping SRT task is a better proxy for the daily activities that require ongoing postural control, and thus may help us better understand sequence learning in real-life situations. In addition, response time serves as an indicator of sequence learning in the classic SRT task, but it is unclear whether response time, reaction time (RT) representing mental process, or movement time (MT) reflecting the movement itself, is a key player in motor sequence learning. The foot-stepping SRT task allows researchers to disentangle response time into RT and MT, which may clarify how motor planning and movement execution are involved in sequence learning. Lastly, postural control and cognition are interactively related, but little is known about how postural control interacts with learning motor sequences. With a motion capture system, the movement of the whole body (e.g., the center of mass (COM)) can be recorded. Such measures allow us to reveal the dynamic processes underlying discrete responses measured by RT and MT, and may aid in elucidating the relationship between postural control and the explicit and implicit processes involved in sequence learning. Details of the experimental set-up, procedure, and data processing are described. The representative data are adopted from one of our previous studies. Results are related to response time, RT, and MT, as well as the relationship between the anticipatory postural response and the explicit processes involved in implicit motor sequence learning.

The &quot;Motor&quot; in Implicit Motor Sequence Learning: A Foot-stepping Serial Reaction Time Task

We introduce the foot-stepping serial reaction time (SRT) task. This modified SRT task, complementing the classic SRT task that involves only finger-pressing movement, better approximates daily sequenced activities and allows researchers to study the dynamic processes underlying discrete response measures and disentangle the explicit process operating in implicit sequence learning.

This protocol describes a modified serial reaction time (SRT) task used to study implicit motor sequence learning. Unlike the classic SRT task that ...

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children's spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed. Conducted in a developmental psychology laboratory behind a one-way mirror and video recorded with a hidden camcorder, the protocol starts with a guessing game where the child is given three trials to guess the identities of hidden objects under an upside down cup. The experimenter gives hints in the first two trials to make sure the child "guess" them correctly. At the beginning of the final trial, the experimenter leaves the room briefly and asks the child not to peek under the cup. If the child could not resist the temptation and peeks, small particles previously filled in the cup would scatter on a grooved surface. Upon the experimenter's return, the child is asked if he/she has peeked. If he/she denies transgression contrary to the presence of the physical evidence, he/she is asked to explain why the particles are on the table. Three responses could be observed in the procedure, including the initial transgression, truth-telling or lie-telling behavior if the child peeked, and the strategic lie-telling behavior in the presence of the physical evidence.

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children&#039;s Strategic Lie-telling

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children&#39;s strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children&#39;s spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed.

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of ...

A Task for Assessing the Impact of a Partner on the Speed and Accuracy of Motor Performance in Rats

To our knowledge, no study has examined the effect of mere presence on accuracy of performance in animals. Therefore, we developed an experimental task to measure rats&#8217; motor performance (speed and accuracy) in a social condition. Rats were trained to run on a runway and pull down a lever at the end of the runway. In testing, rats performed the task solitarily (single) or in the presence of a confederate rat beyond the lever (pair or a social condition). As indices of the performance speed, we measured the time needed to start running, run through the runway, and pull down the lever. As the index of performance accuracy, we counted the number of trials in which rats could pull down the lever during their first attempt. One-way and two-way repeated-measure analyses of variance were used to analyze the data. This run-and-pull task enabled us to examine the effect of the presence of another conspecific on both speed and accuracy of motor performance in one experiment. The results showed that rats performed the task faster but less accurately in pair sessions than in single sessions. This protocol would be a valid animal model to examine the effect of mere presence on speed and accuracy of motor performance in rats.

A procedure to measure the speed and accuracy of rats&rsquo; motor performance in a social condition is described. The protocol enables us to investigate the effect of the mere presence of others on speed and accuracy of motor performance in one experiment.

To our knowledge, no study has examined the effect of mere presence on accuracy of performance in animals. Therefore, we developed an experimental task to ...

Examining Bilingual Language Control Using the Stroop Task

The Stroop task in its many variations has been used in fields such as psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to examine questions regarding the automaticity of reading, language processing, and cognitive control, among others. When looking at bilingual individuals, this task can be used to obtain measures of language interference and control in both a bilingual&#39;s first language (L1) and second language (L2), as well as for testing the bilingual advantage hypothesis. The Stroop task presents participants with color terms written in congruent colors (e.g., the word RED written in red font), incongruent colors (e.g., the word RED written in green font), in addition to noncolor terms for control (e.g., the word TREE presented in any color), and uses the reaction times from the different conditions to assess the degree of interference and facilitation. In the covert version of the Stroop bilingual task (i.e., participants respond by pressing a button rather than naming aloud), stimuli in the L1 and the L2 are typically presented in separate blocks. While this allows for a simple, yet effective assessment of processing and cognitive control in each language, it fails to capture any potential differences in processing and control within bilingual young adult groups. The present task combines single-language blocks with a novel mixed-language block to increase the level of difficulty of the task, thus making it suitable for testing cognitive control in young adults. Representative results showing differences between performance in the single-language vs. mixed-language blocks are presented, and the benefits of a mixed-language block are discussed.

This bilingual Stroop task uses Congruent, Incongruent, and Neutral stimuli presented in blocks in the first language (L1) only, the second language (L2) only, and a combination of L1 and L2. This task allows for an examination of language processing and cognitive control in both L1 and L2.

The Stroop task in its many variations has been used in fields such as psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to examine questions regarding the ...

Revised and Neuroimaging-Compatible Versions of the Dual Task Screen

Dual task paradigms simultaneously assess motor and cognitive abilities, and they can detect subtle, residual impairments in athletes with recent mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). However, past dual task paradigms have focused solely on lower extremity skills and have relied on cumbersome, expensive laboratory equipment - thus limiting their practicality for everyday mTBI evaluation. Subsequently, we developed the Dual Task Screen (DTS), which takes &#60;10 minutes to administer and score, uses low-cost portable equipment, and includes lower extremity (LE) and upper extremity (UE) subtasks. The purpose of this manuscript was twofold. First, we describe the administration protocol for the revised DTS, which we revised to address the limitations of the original DTS. Specifically, the revisions included additions of smart devices to acquire more detailed gait data and inclusion of single cognitive conditions to test for disrupted cognitive performance under dual task conditions. Importantly, the revised DTS is a measure intended for future clinical use, and we present representative results from three male athletes to illustrate the type of clinical data that can be acquired from the measure. Importantly, we have yet to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the revised DTS in athletes with mTBI, which is the next research initiative. The second purpose of this manuscript is to describe a neuroimaging-compatible version of the DTS. We developed this version so we could evaluate the neural underpinnings of single and dual task performance, for a better empirical understanding of the behavioral deficits associated with mTBI. Thus, this manuscript also describes the steps we took to enable simultaneous functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) measurement during the DTS, along with how we acquired and completed first-level processing of the fNIRS data.

We developed the original Dual Task Screen (DTS) as a portable, low-cost measure that can evaluate athletes with sports-induced mild traumatic brain injury. We revised the original DTS for future clinical use and developed a neuroimaging-compatible version of the DTS to measure neural underpinnings of single and dual task performance.

Dual task paradigms simultaneously assess motor and cognitive abilities, and they can detect subtle, residual impairments in athletes with recent mild ...