The authors wish to thank the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory for funding the published work.

<ol>
	<li>Esparza, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blast+measurements+and+equivalency+for+spherical+charges+at+small+scaled+distances.">Blast measurements and equivalency for spherical charges at small scaled distances.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 4 (1), 23-40 (1986).</li><li>Kingery, C. N., Bulmash, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ARBRL-TR-02555.">ARBRL-TR-02555.</a> Airblast parameters from TNT spherical air burst and hemispherical surface burst. , (1984).</li><li>Hyde, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Conventional weapons program (ConWep). , (1991).</li><li>Randers-Pehrson, G., Bannister, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ARL-TR-1310.">ARL-TR-1310.</a> Airblast loading model for DYNA2D and DYNA3D. , (1997).</li><li>Neuberger, A., Peles, S., Rittel, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scaling+the+response+of+circular+plates+subjected+to+large+and+close-range+spherical+explosions.+Part+II:+Buried+charges.">Scaling the response of circular plates subjected to large and close-range spherical explosions. Part II: Buried charges.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 34 (5), 874-882 (2007).</li><li>Xu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+inverse+approach+for+pressure+load+identification.">An inverse approach for pressure load identification.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 37 (7), 865-877 (2010).</li><li>Pickering, E. G., Chung Kim Yuen, S., Nurick, G. N., Haw, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+response+of+quadrangular+plates+to+buried+charges.">The response of quadrangular plates to buried charges.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 49, 103-114 (2012).</li><li>Bergeron, D. M., Trembley, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Canadian+research+to+characterize+mine+blast+output.">Canadian research to characterize mine blast output.</a> , (2000).</li><li>Hlady, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+soil+parameters+on+landmine+blast.">Effect of soil parameters on landmine blast.</a> , (2004).</li><li>Fourney, W. L., Leiste, U., Bonenberger, R., Goodings, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+loading+on+plates+due+to+explosive+detonation.">Mechanism of loading on plates due to explosive detonation.</a> Int. J. on Blasting and Fragmentation. 9 (4), 205-217 (2005).</li><li>Anderson, C. E., Behner, T., Weiss, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mine+blast+loading+experiments.">Mine blast loading experiments.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 38 (8-9), 697-706 (2011).</li><li>Fox, D. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+response+of+small+scale+rigid+targets+to+shallow+buried+explosive+detonations.">The response of small scale rigid targets to shallow buried explosive detonations.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 38 (11), 882-891 (2011).</li><li>Ehrgott, J. Q., Rhett, R. G., Akers, S. A., Rickman, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+and+fabrication+of+an+impulse+measurement+device+to+quantify+the+blast+environment+from+a+near-surface+detonation+in+soil.">Design and fabrication of an impulse measurement device to quantify the blast environment from a near-surface detonation in soil.</a> Experimental Techniques. 35 (3), 51-62 (2011).</li><li>Pope, D. J., Tyas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+hydrocode+modelling+techniques+to+predict+loading+parameters+from+free+air+hemispherical+explosive+charges.">Use of hydrocode modelling techniques to predict loading parameters from free air hemispherical explosive charges.</a> , (2002).</li><li>Clarke, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Repeatability+of+buried+charge+testing.">Repeatability of buried charge testing.</a> , (2014).</li><li>Clarke, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+large+scale+experimental+approach+to+the+measurement+of+spatially+and+temporally+localised+loading+from+the+detonation+of+shallow-buried+explosives.">A large scale experimental approach to the measurement of spatially and temporally localised loading from the detonation of shallow-buried explosives.</a> Meas Sci Technol. 26, 015001 (2015).</li><li>Hopkinson, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Method+of+Measuring+the+Pressure+Produced+in+the+Detonation+of+High+Explosives+or+by+the+Impact+of+Bullets.">A Method of Measuring the Pressure Produced in the Detonation of High Explosives or by the Impact of Bullets.</a> Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A. 213, 437-456 (1914).</li><li>Rigby, S. E., Tyas, A., Fay, S. D., Clarke, S. D., Warren, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Validation+of+semi-empirical+blast+pressure+predictions+for+far+field+explosions+-+is+there+inherent+variability+in+blast+wave+parameters?.">Validation of semi-empirical blast pressure predictions for far field explosions - is there inherent variability in blast wave parameters?.</a> , (2014).</li><li>Rigby, S. E., Tyas, A., Bennett, T., Clarke, S. D., Fay, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+negative+phase+of+the+blast+load.">The negative phase of the blast load.</a> Int. J. of Protective Structures. 5 (1), 1-20 (2014).</li><li>Rigby, S. E., Fay, S. D., Tyas, A., Warren, J. A., Clarke, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angle+of+incidence+effects+on+far-field+positive+and+negative+phase+blast+parameters.">Angle of incidence effects on far-field positive and negative phase blast parameters.</a> Int. J. of Protective Structures. 6 (1), 23-42 (2015).</li><li>Tyas, A., Warren, J., Bennett, T., Fay, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prediction+of+clearing+effects+in+far-field+blast+loading+of+finite+targets.">Prediction of clearing effects in far-field blast loading of finite targets.</a> Shock Waves. 21 (2), 111-119 (2011).</li><li>Tyas, A., Watson, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+study+of+the+effect+of+spatial+variation+of+load+in+the+pressure+bar.">A study of the effect of spatial variation of load in the pressure bar.</a> Meas Sci Technol. 11 (11), 1539-1551 (2000).</li><li>Tyas, A., Watson, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+investigation+of+frequency+domain+dispersion+correction+of+pressure+bar+signals.">An investigation of frequency domain dispersion correction of pressure bar signals.</a> Int. J. Impact Eng. 25 (1), 87-101 (2001).</li><li>NATO Standardisation Agency. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Procedures+for+evaluating+the+protection+level+of+logistic+and+light+armoured+vehicles.">Procedures for evaluating the protection level of logistic and light armoured vehicles.</a> Allied Engineering Publication (AEP) 55. 2, (2011).</li><li>Elgy, I. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> UK ministry of defence technical authority instructions for testing the protection level of vehicles against buried blast mines. , (2014).</li><li>Clarke, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Finite+element+simulation+of+plates+under+non-uniform+blast+loads+using+a+point-load+method:+Buried+explosives.">Finite element simulation of plates under non-uniform blast loads using a point-load method: Buried explosives.</a> , (2015).</li><li>Rigby, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Finite+element+simulation+of+plates+under+non-uniform+blast+loads+using+a+point-load+method:+Blast+wave+clearing.">Finite element simulation of plates under non-uniform blast loads using a point-load method: Blast wave clearing.</a> , (2015).</li><li>Hallquist, J. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> LS-DYNA theory manual. , (2006).</li><li>Fay, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Capturing+the+spatial+and+temporal+variations+in+impulse+from+shallow+buried+charges.">Capturing the spatial and temporal variations in impulse from shallow buried charges.</a> , (2013).</li><li>Fay, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+the+spatial+and+temporal+pressure+variation+from+buried+charges.">Measuring the spatial and temporal pressure variation from buried charges.</a> , (2014).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Using the protocol outlined above the authors have shown that it is possible to get high fidelity measurements of the highly varying loading from an explosive charge, using an array of Hopkinson pressure bars. Using the interpolation routine outlined the discrete pressure-time histories can be transformed into a continuous shock front which is usable directly as the loading function in numerical modelling or as validation data for the output of such models.
When using buried charges the method...

Characterizing the output of explosive charges has many benefits, both military (defending against buried improvised explosive devices in current conflict zones) and civilian (designing structural components). In recent times this topic has received considerable attention. Much of the knowledge gathered has aimed at the quantification of the output from charges to enable the design of more effective protective structures. The main issue here is that if the measurements made are not of high fidelity then the mechanisms of load transfer in these explosive events remain unclear. This in turn leads to problems validating numerical models which rely on these measurements for validation.
The term near-field is used to describe blasts with scaled distances, Z, less than ~1 m/kg1/3, where Z = R/W1/3, R is the distance from the center of the explosive, and W is the charge mass expressed as an equivalent mass of TNT. In this regime the loading is typically characterized by extremely high magnitude, highly spatial and temporally non-uniform loads. Robust instrumentation is hence required to measure the extreme pressures associated with near-field loading. At scaled distances Z &#60; 0.4 m/kg1/3, direct measurements of the blast parameters are either non-existent or very few1 and the semi-empirical predictive data for this range is based almost entirely on parametric studies. This involves using the semi-empirical predictions given by Kingery and Bulmash2, which is outside of the author&#39;s intended scope. Whilst tools based on these predictions3,4 allow for excellent first-order estimations of loading they do not fully capture the mechanics of near-field events, which are the focus of the current research.
Near-field blast measurements have in recent times focused on quantifying the output from buried charges. The methodologies employed vary from assessing the deformation caused to a structural target5-7 to direct global impulse measurement8-13. These methods provide valuable information for the validation of protective system designs but are not capable of fully investigating the mechanics of load transfer. Testing can be done at both laboratory scales (1/10 full scale), or at near to full scale (&#62; 1/4), with pragmatic reasons such as controlling burial depth or ensuring no inherent shape of the shock front is generated by the use of detonators rather than bare charges14. With buried charges the soil conditions need to be highly controlled to guarantee the repeatability of the testing15.
Independent of the whether the charge is placed in free air or is buried, the most fundamental issue in measuring the resulting blast is ensuring the validity of measurements made by the instrumentation deployed. In the designed test apparatus16 a fixed &#39;rigid&#39; target plate is used to shield the Hopkinson pressure bars17 (HPBs) whilst at the same time ensuring that the ends of the bars can only record the fully reflected pressures. The authors have previously shown that measurement of reflected pressure from a rigid target is more accurate and repeatable than incident, or &#39;free-field&#39; measurements18-20. The geometry of this plate is such that any pressure relief generated by clearing or flow around the target edge21 would be negligible. This new test apparatus has been constructed at 1/4 scale. At this scale tight control over the burial conditions and the explosives can be ensured, with the full scale charge size of 5 kg scaled down to 78 g, at a burial depth of 25 mm.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Load Cell</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">RDP</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">RSL0960</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">This is only indicative, the exact load cell should be able to resolve the required loading</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Steel target plate / HPBs</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Garratts&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Fabricated to order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Strain gauge</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Kyowa</td>
			<td>KSP-2-120-E4</td>
			<td>To use with steel HPBs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cyanoacrylate</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Kyowa</td>
			<td>CC-33-A</td>
			<td>Check with manufacturer depending on mar material to be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Digital Oscilloscope</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">TiePie</td>
			<td>HS4 16-bit Handyscopes&#160;</td>
			<td>6 used in parallel in current testing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Leighton Buzzard sand</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Garside sands</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Garside 14/25</td>
			<td>Uniform silica sand&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

blast quantification using hopkinson pressure bars

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures up to many hundreds of megapascals. In this respect the simplicity of the Hopkinson pressure bar has a major advantage in that while the measurement end of the Hopkinson bar can endure and be exposed to harsh conditions, the strain gauge mounted to the bar can be affixed some distance away. This allows protective housings to be utilized which protect the strain gauge but do not interfere with the measurement acquisition. The use of an array of pressure bars allows the pressure-time histories at discrete known points to be measured. This article also describes the interpolation routine used to derive pressure-time histories at un-instrumented locations on the plane of interest. Currently the technique has been used to measure loading from high explosives in free air and buried shallowly in various soils.

An effectively rigid reaction frame needs to be provided. In the current testing a total imparted impulse of several hundred Newton-seconds needs to be resisted with minimal deflection. An illustration of the rigid reaction frame used is given in Figure 1. In each frame a 50 mm steel &#39;acceptor&#39; plate has been cast into the base of the cross beams. Whilst not explicitly required, this allows for easy fixing of the load cells / target plate and provides added protec...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Blast Quantification Using Hopkinson Pressure Bars at JoVE.com

Blast Quantification Using Hopkinson Pressure Bars

This protocol details the use of Hopkinson pressure bars to measure reflected blast loading from near-field explosive events. It is capable of interpolating a pressure-time history at any point on a reflective boundary and as such can be used to fully characterize the spatial and temporal variations in loading produced.

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures ...

blast-quantification-using-hopkinson-pressure-bars

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Civil Engineering

Engineering

Unit 1

Strength of Concrete

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

8.9K Views.  University of Sheffield. This protocol details the use of Hopkinson pressure bars to measure reflected blast loading from near-field explosive events. It is capable of interpolating a pressure-time history at any point on a reflective boundary and as such can be used to fully characterize the spatial and temporal variations in loading produced.