We thank the Kennedy Institute Imaging Facility personnel for technical assistance with imaging. This work was supported by grants from the Kennedy Trust (to A.G.), and Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/R015651/1 to A.G.).

All experiments involving mice were in agreement with the UK Scientific Procedures Act of 1986.
1. Adoptive Transfer of Antigenic-specific CD8+ T Cells in Mice
<ol>
	<li>Isolate ovalbumin (OVA)-specific CD8+ T cells (OTI) expressing green fluorescent protein (OTI-GFP) or red fluorescent protein (OTI-RFP) from lymph node suspension of T-cell receptor transgenic mice9,10 using a mouse CD8+ T cell isolation kit as per manufacture instructions. Prepare the cell suspension by smashing lymph nodes using a syringe plunger, as previously described11.</li>
	<li>Transfer OTI-GFP or OTI-RFP cells (3 x 106 cells) into C57BL/6 wild type mice recipients by intravenous injection as described by Cahalan, et al.12. Use mice that are typically 6&#8211;12 week of age. 
	NOTE: This step is optional and only required for tracking antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.</li>
</ol>
2. Listeria monocytogenes Infection
<ol>
	<li>Expand L. monocytogenes genetically modified to express OVA (LM-OVA)13 to an exponential phase of growth in broth heart infusion at 37 &#176;C under gentle agitation until the OD600&#160;reaches 0.08&#8211;0.1, as previously described in reference14.</li>
	<li>Inject 100 &#181;L (maximum volume = 200 &#181;L) of 0.1&#8211;0.5 LD50 LM-OVA diluted in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) by intravenous injection using a 29 G insulin syringe, into C57BL/6 wild type mice recipients bearing OTI-GFP or OTI-RFP cells when indicated. 
	NOTE: In our hands, 0.1 x LD50 LM-OVA corresponds to 2 x 104 colony forming units (CFU). L. monocytogenes genetically modified to express OVA is used to activate the previously transferred OTI CD8+ T cells, but other strains of L. monocytogenes can be used.</li>
</ol>
3. Treatment with Brefeldin A (BFA) to Block Cytokine Secretion
<ol>
	<li>Inject 250 &#181;g of BFA in 200 &#181;L of PBS intraperitoneally 6 h before mouse sacrifice using a 29 G insulin syringe. 
	NOTE: Lyophilized BFA is first resuspended in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to prepare stock of 25 mg/mL concentration. The BFA is then diluted in PBS at room temperature (RT) to avoid crystallization prior to injection. Inhibition of cytokine secretion induces accumulation of IFN&#947; in cells. This is crucial for cytokine detection.</li>
</ol>
4. Harvesting the Spleen
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize the mice using rising concentration of CO2 followed by cervical dislocation. 
	NOTE: Follow the local institution guidelines for humane euthanasia of mice.</li>
	<li>Cleanse the abdomen with 70% ethanol, make an incision with scissors to make a 1&#8211;2 cm cut through the skin on the left flank of the mouse, where the spleen is located. Carefully make an incision in the peritoneum to expose the spleen and take it out with tweezers. Harvest the spleen, being careful not to squeeze it with forceps or cut it to avoid disrupting the spleen architecture.</li>
</ol>
5. Fixation of the Spleen with Paraformaldehyde (PFA)
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the fixative solution by mixing 3.75 mL of PBS and 3.75 mL of 0.2 M L-lysine. Add 21 mg of sodium m-periodate and mix well. Then add 2.5 mL of 4% PFA and 20 &#181;L of 12 N NaOH. 
	NOTE: Use the fixative solution on the same day and discard the excess. Do not store it. This fixation step is important if the sample contains fluorescent proteins such as GFP. Do not use PFA containing traces of methanol, as it denatures fluorescent proteins. 
	CAUTION: PFA is toxic and must be handled with caution.</li>
	<li>Submerge the spleen in the fixative and fix for a minimum of 4 h, typically 16&#8211;20 h at 4&#176;C under gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Discard the fixative solution and add 5 mL of PBS for 5 min at RT under gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Replace the PBS with 5 mL of fresh PBS incubate for 1 h&#160;at 4 &#176;C under gentle agitation.</li>
	<li>Replace the PBS with 5 mL of 30% sucrose, incubate for 12&#8211;24 h. 
	NOTE: This method helps maintain the tissue morphology. After incubation with sucrose solution, the organ should sink at the bottom of the well.</li>
</ol>
6. Freezing and Sectioning
<ol>
	<li>Put dry ice in a large receptacle and place a smaller receptacle inside containing around 50 mL of pure methanol and a few pieces of dry ice.</li>
	<li>Gently dry the spleen on a lint-free wipe.</li>
	<li>Place the spleen inside a base mold containing a drop of optimum cutting temperature (OCT) compound at the bottom. Be careful not to produce any bubbles. Add OCT over the spleen.</li>
	<li>With forceps, deposit the base mold on the surface of the methanol, making sure that it does not touch the OCT. Freezing the tissue as rapidly as possible to minimize artifacts.</li>
	<li>When it is frozen, proceed with sectioning. 
	NOTE: Frozen spleen can be kept at -80 &#176;C for several months.</li>
	<li>Section the tissue using a cryomicrotome.
	<ol>
		<li>Set the chamber temperature on the cryostat should to -21 &#176;C. Cut sections of the desired thickness (usually around 10 &#181;m). This protocol works with thicknesses up to 30 &#181;m.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect sections onto glass microscope slides (see the Table of Materials) and inspect visually. 
	NOTE: Sections can be kept at -80 &#176;C for several months.</li>
</ol>
7. Immunofluorescent Staining
<ol>
	<li>Allow the section to come to RT.</li>
	<li>Draw a circle with a liquid blocker (e.g., PAP pen) around the tissue section. Draw outside the OCT or it will not stick.</li>
	<li>Once it has dried, rehydrate the sample by placing PBS on the tissue section for 5 min. 
	NOTE: The volume put on the section depends on the size of the section. We typically use 100&#8211;300 &#181;L. Do not let the sections dry once they are rehydrated.</li>
	<li>Rinse with PBS at least twice to ensure that the section is well adhered to the slide.</li>
	<li>Add blocking solution to the section to decrease non-specific binding of antibodies.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare blocking solution as follow: PBS with 0.1% Triton X100, 2% fetal calf serum (FCS), 2.5 &#181;g/mL Fc receptor blocker (anti-mouse CD16/32). Then add 2&#8211;5% normal serum of the species of each secondary antibody of the staining panel. 
		NOTE: If the antibodies are directly conjugated/biotinylated, add 5% normal serum of the species of each primary antibody. If a primary antibody and one of the secondary antibodies are from the same species (e.g., primary antibody raised in rabbit and secondary rabbit anti-rat), do not use the normal serum species as it will increase the background signal.</li>
		<li>Gently remove the PBS from the section by aspiration and add 100 &#181;L of the blocking solution per sample section. Incubate in a covered wet chamber for a minimum of 1 h at RT.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Stain with primary antibodies.
	<ol>
		<li>Dilute the primary antibodies at the optimal concentration in the blocking solution. The general starting point antibody concentration is 5 &#181;g/mL, but it should be optimized for each antibody and tissue. 
		NOTE: If the antibodies are directly conjugated, centrifuge the antibody mix at 17.135 x g (13.500 rpm) for 15 min at 4 &#176;C before using it. Fluorophores can precipitate. This step will pellet the precipitates and thereby prevent non-specific deposition of the precipitated antibodies on the slide.</li>
		<li>Replace the blocking solution with the primary antibody mix for each sample.</li>
		<li>Incubate for 4 h at RT or overnight (OVN) at 4 &#176;C in a covered wet chamber.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform washing.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare Wash Buffer by adding 2% FCS to PBS.</li>
		<li>Wash 4 times with wash buffer: one quick (without incubation), one for 10 min and two for 5 min. Then perform a final wash with PBS for 5 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Staining with secondary antibodies.
	<ol>
		<li>Dilute the secondary antibodies of interest at the optimal concentration in the blocking solution. Centrifuge the mix, as described for the primary antibodies.</li>
		<li>Remove the final wash solution. Add the secondary antibody mix on top of the section and incubate for 1&#8211;4 h at RT in a covered wet chamber.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Wash 4 times with wash buffer: one quick (without incubation), one for 10 min and two for 5 min. Then&#160;perform a final wash with PBS for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the final wash solution. Allow the PBS to evaporate but do not over-dry the section. Place a drop of the mounting medium on top of the sample and carefully place the cover glass on top of it. The mounting medium must recover the whole section. Let it polymerase OVN at RT protected from light. 
	NOTE: Draw a circle around the section on the reverse side of the slide before applying the mounting medium. Once the mounting medium is applied, the tissue might become difficult to see.</li>
	<li>Store the slides in the dark at 4 &#176;C until ready to image.</li>
</ol>
8. Imaging and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Perform imaging of the staining with a confocal microscope. 
	NOTE: In this protocol, an inverted spectral laser scanning microscope was used (see the Table of Materials), together with the objectives 10x/NA 0.40 or 60x/NA 1.4 (for analysis of cytokine sub-cellular localization). Wavelengths of excitation and emission are displayed for each fluorophore and fluorescent protein in the Table of Materials.</li>
	<li>Perform analysis and quantification as required using image processing software (e.g., Imaris or Fiji).</li>
</ol>

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+immunity+to+Listeria+monocytogenes+in+the+absence+of+IFN+gamma.">Specific immunity to Listeria monocytogenes in the absence of IFN gamma.</a> Immunity. 3 (1), 109-117 (1995).</li><li>Kubota, K., Kadoya, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Innate+IFN-gamma-producing+cells+in+the+spleen+of+mice+early+after+Listeria+monocytogenes+infection:+importance+of+microenvironment+of+the+cells+involved+in+the+production+of+innate+IFN-gamma.">Innate IFN-gamma-producing cells in the spleen of mice early after Listeria monocytogenes infection: importance of microenvironment of the cells involved in the production of innate IFN-gamma.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 2 (26), (2011).</li><li>Dunn, P. L., North, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+gamma+interferon+production+by+natural+killer+cells+is+important+in+defense+against+murine+listeriosis.">Early gamma interferon production by natural killer cells is important in defense against murine listeriosis.</a> Infection and Immunity. 59 (9), 2892-2900 (1991).</li><li>Krummel, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Paracrine+costimulation+of+IFN-gamma+signaling+by+integrins+modulates+CD8++T+cell+differentiation.">Paracrine costimulation of IFN-gamma signaling by integrins modulates CD8+ T cell differentiation.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (45), 11585-11590 (2018).</li><li>Curtsinger, J. M., Agarwal, P., Lins, D. C., Mescher, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autocrine+IFN-gamma+promotes+naive+CD8++T+cell+differentiation+and+synergizes+with+IFN-alpha+to+stimulate+strong+function.">Autocrine IFN-gamma promotes naive CD8+ T cell differentiation and synergizes with IFN-alpha to stimulate strong function.</a> Journal of Immunology. 189 (2), 659-668 (2012).</li><li>Hosking, M. P., Flynn, C. T., Whitton, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antigen-specific+naive+CD8+++T+cells+produce+a+single+pulse+of+IFN-gamma+in+vivo+within+hours+of+infection,+but+without+antiviral+effect.">Antigen-specific naive CD8++ T cells produce a single pulse of IFN-gamma in vivo within hours of infection, but without antiviral effect.</a> Journal of Immunology. 193 (4), 1873-1885 (2014).</li><li>Croxford, A. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

In this manuscript, we present a method to visualize IFN&#947; production in the spleen following L. monocytogenes infection in mice. This protocol is simple and can be adapted to other tissues and cytokine triggers, but the following aspects have to be considered. Cells often rapidly secrete the cytokines they produce, and cytokines are rapidly picked up by neighboring cells. It is as such difficult to detect cytokines in situ. A common method to rapidly re-initiate cytokine production is to re-stimulate the cells ex vivo followed by cytokine detection in the media by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In this context, any information about the spatial localization of the cytokine-producing cells is lost. In addition, cytokine production following re-stimulation does not necessarily reflect whether cytokines are actually produced and secreted in vivo, but rather indicates the capacity of a given cell population to produce cytokines. Therefore, both methods will provide different information and one should consider which information is most valuable for their experiment.
In order to detect intracellular cytokines, our method uses an intracellular protein transport inhibitor to trap cytokines inside cells and increase signal detection. However, it is important to note that these inhibitors affect the normal transportation of proteins from the endothelial reticulum (RE) to the Golgi apparatus and to the secretory vesicle impairing their release, which could cause toxicity. As a consequence, BFA, or other inhibitor, should be used for a short period of time, typically no more than a few hours. Hence, it is important to find the right balance between the inhibitor dose and time of treatment in order to optimize the level of cytokines trapped inside the cell without causing serious cytotoxic effects. These variables can differ between cytokines and the route of administration for the BFA. In our infection model, the BFA was administrated intraperitoneally in order to provide a rapid systemic dispersion, but it can also be delivered intravenously.
The most commonly used intracellular protein transport inhibitors are BFA, used here, and monensin (MN). These inhibitors are often used indistinctly to accumulate and study cytokine production but they have slight differences in their mechanisms of action. MN inhibits transportation of proteins within the Golgi apparatus hence accumulating proteins in the Golgi17 while BFA prevents coatomer protein complex-I recruitment, inhibiting the retrograde movement of proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and thereby promoting accumulation of cytokines in the ER18. As such, choosing the best intracellular protein transport inhibitor will depend on different factors, such as the cytokine to be detected. For example, it has been shown in lipopolysaccharide-induced intracellular staining of monocytes that BFA is more efficient to measure the cytokines IL-1&#946;, IL-6 and TNF than MN19.
This protocol involves the visualization of the cytokine in situ by confocal microscopy and therefore there are only a limited number of markers than can be used to study the cytokine- producing cells and their microenvironment. It is also necessary to consider that protein transport inhibitors such as BFA or MN disturb the normal expression of several proteins and hence their use when studying the simultaneous expression of certain activation cell surface markers has to be approached carefully. For example, BFA but not MN blocks the expression of CD69 in murine lymphocytes20. Despite this limitation, confocal imaging enables sub-cellular localization of cytokines, as well as the direction of the cytokine secretion within the cell. The data generated using this protocol suggest that NK cells tend to secrete IFN-y in a diffuse pattern while CD8+ T cells seem to direct the IFN&#947; secretion towards other CD8+ T cells that are in direct interaction with them5.
To conclude, this protocol is suitable to visualize a variety of cytokines in situ and identify producing cells and their microenvironment following many triggers such as infection or autoimmunity. The information obtained is instrumental to understand the importance of the in vivo spatial orchestration of different cell types and the cytokine they produce, necessary for an efficient immune response.

Orchestrating an efficient immune response against a pathogen requires complex integration of signals displayed by a variety of immune cells that are often dispersed among the organism. In order to communicate, these cells produce small soluble proteins with multiple biological functions that act as immunomodulators named cytokines. Cytokines control cell recruitment, activation and proliferation and hence are known to be key players in the promotion of immune responses1. Effective immune responses require cytokines to be released in a very organized spatiotemporal pattern connecting specific cells to induce specific signals. Therefore, it is crucial to study cytokine production and its signaling in situ, taking into account the microenvironment in which cytokines are produced.
Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) is a Gram-positive intracellular bacterium used as a prime model to study immune responses to intracellular pathogens in mice. One cytokine, IFN gamma (IFN&#947;) is produced rapidly, within 24 h following L. monocytogenes infection. It is necessary for pathogen clearance, as mice knocked out for IFN&#947; are highly susceptible to L. monocytogenes infection2. IFN&#947; is pleiotropic and produced by multiple cells following infection3. While IFN&#947; produced by natural killer (NK) cells is required for direct anti-bacterial activity4, IFN&#947; from other sources have been shown to have other functions. Indeed, we and others recently found that IFN&#947; produced by CD8+ T cells has a specific function in directly regulating T cell differentiation5,6,7. As such, understanding which cells produce IFN&#947; (and in which microenvironment) is crucial to dissect its function.
The most common technique to study cytokine production relies on intracellular cytokine staining analyzed by flow cytometry. This method allows the simultaneous detection of multiple cytokines combined with cell surface markers within a single sample, providing an extremely useful tool to study cytokine production. However, using the aforementioned technique implies losing any spatial information. In addition, cytokine detection often relies on in vitro re-stimulation to enable cytokine detection. As such, the capacity of a given cell to produce a cytokine is analyzed, and it does not necessarily correlate with actual cytokine secretion in situ. Other methods use reporter mice for which fluorescent protein expression correlates with cytokine transcription and allows for visualization on a single-cell level8. Although this method can track cytokine transcription in situ, there are a limited number of cytokine-reporter mice available. In addition, transcription, translation and secretion can sometimes be unlinked, and fluorescent proteins have a different half-life than the cytokine they report, making this method sometimes not adequate for in situ cytokine visualization.
Here, we describe a method to visualize in situ cytokine production by confocal microscopy at single cell resolution. This technique enables the visualization of the cellular source and surrounding niche within the tissue. This protocol specifically describes the visualization of IFN&#947; production in the spleen of L. monocytogenes infected mice, focusing here on IFN&#947; production by NK cells and antigen specific CD8+ T cells. However, it can be extended and adapted to the characterization of any cytokine production in the context of other situations where cytokines are produced such as infection, inflammation or autoimmune diseases, as long the targeted cytokine can be retained in cells by intracellular protein transport inhibitor.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Brefeldin A</td>
			<td>Cambridge bioscience</td>
			<td>CAY11861</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Agar scientific</td>
			<td>R1018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-Lysin dihydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma lifescience</td>
			<td>L5751</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium meta-periodate</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>20504</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D(+)-saccharose</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>27480.294</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision wipes paper Kimtech science</td>
			<td>Kimberly-Clark Professional</td>
			<td>75512</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>O.C.T. compound, mounting medium for cryotomy</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>361603E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fc block, purified anti-mouse CD16/32, clone 93</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>101302</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: 2.5 mg/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides - Superfrost Plus</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>631-0108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-CD169 - AF647</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>142407</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: clone 3D6.112 1.6 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 650 
			 Emission wavelength: 65</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-F4/80 - APC</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>123115</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: clone BM8 2.5 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 650 
			 Emission wavelength: 660</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-B220 - PB</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>103230</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: clone RA3-6B2 1.6 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 410 
			 Emission wavelength: 455</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-IFNg - biotin</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>505804</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: clone XMG1.2 5 mg/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-IFNg - BV421</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>505829</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: clone XMG1.2 5 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 405 
			 Emission wavelength: 436</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Nkp46/NCRI</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>AF2225</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: goat 2.5 mg/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-goat IgG-FITC</td>
			<td>Novusbio</td>
			<td>NPp 1-74814</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: 1 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 490 
			 Emission wavelength: 525</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin - PE</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>405203</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: 2.5 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 565 
			 Emission wavelength: 578</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>streptavidin - FITC</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>405201</td>
			<td>Antibody clone and Concentration used: 2.5 mg/ml 
			Excitation wavelength: 490 
			 Emission wavelength: 525</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluoromount G</td>
			<td>SouthernBiotech</td>
			<td>0100-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cover glasses 22x40mm</td>
			<td>Menzel-Glazer</td>
			<td>12352128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid blocker super PAP PEN mini</td>
			<td>Axxora</td>
			<td>CAC-DAI-PAP-S-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaris - Microscopy Image Analysis Software</td>
			<td>Bitplane</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
	
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope - Olympus FV1200 Laser scanning microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat - CM 1900 UV</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Base mould disposable</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific UK Ltd</td>
			<td>11670990</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS 1X</td>
			<td>Life Technologies Ltd</td>
			<td>20012068</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BHI Broth</td>
			<td>VWR Brand</td>
			<td>303415ZA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td> 
			Excitation wavelength: 484 
			 Emission wavelength: 507</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RFP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td> 
			Excitation wavelength: 558 
			 Emission wavelength: 583</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin syringe, with needle, 29G</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>BDAM324824</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6 wild type mice</td>
			<td>Charles River</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

imaging of in situ interferon gamma production in the mouse spleen following listeria monocytogenes infection

Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells, mediating cell-cell communications that are crucial for effective immune responses. One characteristic of cytokines is their pleiotropism, as they are produced by and can affect a multitude of cell types. As such, it is important to understand not only which cells are producing cytokines, but also in which environment they do so, in order to define more specific therapeutics. Here, we describe a method to visualize cytokine production in situ following bacterial infection. This technique relies on imaging cytokine-producing cells in their native environment by confocal microscopy. To do so, tissue sections are stained for markers of multiple cell types together with a cytokine stain. Key to this method, cytokine secretion is blocked directly in vivo before harvesting the tissue of interest, allowing for detection of the cytokine that accumulated inside the producing cells. The advantages of this method are multiple. First, the microenvironment in which cytokines are produced is preserved, which could ultimately inform on the signals required for cytokine production and the cells affected by those cytokines. In addition, this method gives an indication of the location of the cytokine production in vivo, as it does not rely on artificial in vitro re-stimulation of the producing cells. However, it is not possible to simultaneously analyze cytokine downstream signaling in cells that receive the cytokine. Similarly, the cytokine signals observed correspond&#160;only to the time-window during which cytokine secretion was blocked. While we describe the visualization of the cytokine Interferon (IFN) gamma in the spleen following mouse infection by the intracellular bacteria Listeria monocytogenes, this method could potentially be adapted to the visualization of any cytokine in most organs.

IFN&#947; produced within the first 24 h after Listeria monocytogenes infection is critical to control the spread of this pathogen. Using this protocol, we can visualize not only which cells are producing IFN&#947; but also whether they are located in a specific microenvironment. To help us delineate the architecture of the spleen, we labeled cells known to have particular location within the spleen. The marker F4/80 labels all macrophages and highlights the red pulp. The marker B220 labels B cells and highlights B cell follicles surrounding the T cell zone. The marker CD169 labels marginal zone macrophages, surrounding the white pulp (Figure 1). Most OTI cells, whether they express IFN&#947; or not, are present in the white pulp and as such, all images are those of the white pulp, unless indicated.
One critical step in this protocol is the use of BFA to inhibit cytokine secretion. Indeed, the detection of IFN&#947; by NK cells was greatly impaired when mice were not treated with BFA (Figure 2). Using our protocol, we could find that at least two cell types produce IFN&#947; 24 h after infection&#8212;NK cells and antigen-specific CD8+ T cells (Figure 3)&#8212;similarly to what has been found previously by flow cytometry3.
In situ imaging of IFN&#947; producing cells revealed that IFN&#947; production is not spread throughout the spleen, but concentrated into discreet areas (Figure 4). Indeed, we found that T cells were activated throughout the spleen (highlighted by T cell clustering), and this did not necessarily correlate with IFN&#947; production. One likely explanation is that IFN&#947; production is restricted to the location of the infected cells15,16, and T cell activation&#8212;represented by clustering&#8212;can be supported by both infected (IFN&#947; positive) and non-infected (IFN&#947; negative) antigen-presenting cells. Other stains will be required to pinpoint the exact location and get an indication of the mechanism restricting IFN&#947; production to this area and its relationship to antigen transfer. Interestingly, we found that activated, clustered, antigen-specific T cells are located throughout the white pulp of the spleen but they produce IFN&#947; only in regions where NK cells are coexisting with them (Figure 5). As such, the presence of NK cells delineates a specific microenvironment in the white pulp, in which clustered T cells produce IFN&#947; as opposed to clustered T cells in the other part of the white pulp. This suggests that T cell activation is not sufficient to dictate IFN&#947; production at this time point.
Another interesting feature highlighted by our protocol is the different sub-cellular localization of IFN&#947; in NK versus CD8+ T cells5. As shown in Figure 6, while IFN&#947; localization in NK cells is diffused in the cytosol, CD8+ T cells often recruit IFN&#947; towards another T cell.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Markers highlighting the spleen architecture.&#160;Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA and euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleen was explanted and processed as described in the protocol. (A) Sections were stained for NK cells (anti-NCR1 followed by anti-goat IgG-FITC; green), OTI-RFP cells (red) and macrophages (anti-F4/80-APC; magenta). RP = Red Pulp; WP = White Pulp. Scale bar = 200 &#181;m. (B) Sections were stained for B cells (anti-B220-Pacific Blue; Blue), OTI-GFP cells (GFP signal shown in red) and marginal zone macrophages (anti-CD169-Alexa647; magenta). RP = Red Pulp; BF = B cell follicle; TZ = T cell zone. Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. This is a representative image of 3 independent experiments (N = 4). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: BFA treatment allows for the detection of intracellular IFN&#947; in situ.&#160;N&#947; production is restricted to specific areas in the sple Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA and treated with BFA (A) or left untreated (B) after 18 h. Mice were euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleen was explanted and processed as described in the protocol. Sections were stained for NK cells (anti-NCR1 followed by anti-goat IgG-FITC; green), OTI-RFP cells (red) and IFN&#947; (anti-IFN&#947;-BV421; cyan). Scale bar = 5 &#181;m. This is a representative image of NK cell-rich areas from 3 independent experiments (N = 3). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: IFN&#947; producing cells in the spleen.&#160;Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA when indicated and treated with BFA after 18 h. Mice were euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleen was explanted and processed as described in the protocol. Sections were stained for NK cells (anti-NCR1 followed by anti-goat IgG-FITC; green), OTI-RFP cells (red) and IFN&#947; (anti-IFN&#947;-BV421; cyan). (A) Representative image of a spleen from an un-infected na&#239;ve mouse to demonstrate absence of IFN&#947; non-specific staining. White lines delineate the white pulp. WP = White pulp; RP = Red pulp. (B) Representative image of the white pulp from the spleen of a mouse infected by LM-OVA, showing invasion of NK cells to the white pulp and production of IFN&#947; by NK cells, OTI cells and non-labelled cells. Images are representative from 4 independent experiments (N = 4). Scale bars = 70 &#181;m (A); and 20 &#181;m (B). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: IFN&#947; production is restricted to specific areas in the spleen following LM-OVA infection.&#160;Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA and treated with BFA after 18 h. Mice were euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleen was explanted and processed as described in the protocol. All sections were stained for B cells (B220-Pacific Blue Ab, Blue) and IFN&#947; (anti-IFN&#947;-biotin followed by streptavidin-PE; cyan). OTI-GFP cells (GFP signal shown in red). Cyan lines correspond to areas of high IFN&#947; production. Those are representative images of 4 independent experiments (N = 4). (A) Sections were stained for marginal zone macrophages (anti-CD169-Alexa 647, magenta). Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. (B) Sections were stained for all macrophages (F4/80). Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: IFN&#947; production by activated OTI cells occurs in a specific microenvironment.&#160;Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA and treated with BFA after 18 h. Mice were euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleens were explanted and processed as described in the protocol. Sections were stained for NK cells (anti-NCR1 followed by anti-goat IgG-FITC; green), OTI-RFP cells (red) and IFN&#947; (anti-IFN&#947;-BV421; cyan). Green and red lines highlight NK and OTI cell zones, respectively. White arrow indicate examples of T cell clusters not producing IFN&#947;. Green arrows examples of T cell clusters producing IFN&#947;. Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. This is a representative image of four independent experiments (N = 4). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Sub-cellular localization of IFN&#947; in NK cells and T cells.&#160;Mice were infected with 2 x 104 CFU LM-OVA and treated with BFA after 18 h. Mice were euthanized 24 h post infection. Spleen was explanted and processed as described in the protocol. All sections were stained for IFN&#947; (anti-IFN&#947;-BV421; cyan). White lines delineate cell edges and white arrows shows directionality of secretion. This is a representative image of two independent experiments (N = 5). (A)- OTI-RFP cells are shown in red. Scale bar =&#160;5 &#181;m. (B) Sections were stained for NK cells (anti-NCR1 followed by anti-goat IgG-FITC; green. Scale bar =&#160;2 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59819/59819fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging of In Situ Interferon Gamma Production in the Mouse Spleen following Listeria monocytogenes Infection at JoVE.com

Imaging of In Situ Interferon Gamma Production in the Mouse Spleen following Listeria monocytogenes Infection

Here, we describe a simple confocal imaging method to visualize the in situ localization of cells secreting the cytokine Interferon gamma in murine secondary lymphoid organs. This protocol can be extended for the visualization of other cytokines in diverse tissues.

Imaging of In Situ Interferon Gamma Production in the Mouse Spleen following Listeria monocytogenes Infection

Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells, mediating cell-cell communications that are crucial for effective immune responses. One characteristic of ...

imaging-situ-interferon-gamma-production-mouse-spleen-following

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

9.0K Views.  The University of Oxford. Here, we describe a simple confocal imaging method to visualize the in situ localization of cells secreting the cytokine Interferon gamma in murine secondary lymphoid organs. This protocol can be extended for the visualization of other cytokines in diverse tissues.

Video: Imaging of In Situ Interferon Gamma Production in the Mouse Spleen following Listeria monocytogenes Infection

Measuring Bacterial Load and Immune Responses in Mice Infected with Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen1. Mouse studies typically employ intravenous injection of Listeria, which results in systemic infection2. After injection, Listeria quickly disseminates to the spleen and liver due to uptake by CD8&alpha;+ dendritic cells and Kupffer cells3,4. Once phagocytosed, various bacterial proteins enable Listeria to escape the phagosome, survive within the cytosol, and infect neighboring cells5. During the first three days of infection, different innate immune cells (e.g. monocytes, neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells) mediate bactericidal mechanisms that minimize Listeria proliferation. CD8+ T cells are subsequently recruited and responsible for the eventual clearance of Listeria from the host, typically within 10 days of infection6.
Successful clearance of Listeria from infected mice depends on the appropriate onset of host immune responses6	. There is a broad range of sensitivities amongst inbred mouse strains7,8. Generally, mice with increased susceptibility to Listeria infection are less able to control bacterial proliferation, demonstrating increased bacterial load and/or delayed clearance compared to resistant mice. Genetic studies, including linkage analyses and knockout mouse strains, have identified various genes for which sequence variation affects host responses to Listeria infection6,8-14. Determination and comparison of infection kinetics between different mouse strains is therefore an important method for identifying host genetic factors that contribute to immune responses against Listeria. Comparison of host responses to different Listeria strains is also an effective way to identify bacterial virulence factors that may serve as potential targets for antibiotic therapy or vaccine design.
We describe here a straightforward method for measuring bacterial load (colony forming units [CFU] per tissue) and preparing single-cell suspensions of the liver and spleen for FACS analysis of immune responses in Listeria-infected mice. This method is particularly useful for initial characterization of Listeria infection in novel mouse strains, as well as comparison of immune responses between different mouse strains infected with Listeria. We use the Listeria monocytogenes EGD strain15 that, when cultured on blood agar, exhibits a characteristic halo zone around each colony due to &beta;-hemolysis1 (Figure 1). Bacterial load and immune responses can be determined at any time-point after infection by culturing tissue homogenate on blood agar plates and preparing tissue cell suspensions for FACS analysis using the protocols described below. We would note that individuals who are immunocompromised or pregnant should not handle Listeria, and the relevant institutional biosafety committee and animal facility management should be consulted before work commences.

Measuring Bacterial Load and Immune Responses in Mice Infected with Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a model organism for studying immune responses and genetic susceptibility to intracellular bacteria in mice. This method enables one to measure bacterial load and generate single-cell suspensions of the liver and spleen from mice for FACS analysis to determine changes in immune cells due to Listeria infection.

Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen1. Mouse studies typically employ intravenous injection of ...

Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda

The system comprising bacteriophage (phage) lambda and the bacterium E. coli has long served as a paradigm for cell-fate determination1,2. Following the simultaneous infection of the cell by a number of phages, one of two pathways is chosen: lytic (virulent) or lysogenic (dormant)3,4. We recently developed a method for fluorescently labeling individual phages, and were able to examine the post-infection decision in real-time under the microscope, at the level of individual phages and cells5. Here, we describe the full procedure for performing the infection experiments described in our earlier work5. This includes the creation of fluorescent phages, infection of the cells, imaging under the microscope and data analysis. The fluorescent phage is a "hybrid", co-expressing wild- type and YFP-fusion versions of the capsid gpD protein. A crude phage lysate is first obtained by inducing a lysogen of the gpD-EYFP (Enhanced Yellow Fluorescent Protein) phage, harboring a plasmid expressing wild type gpD. A series of purification steps are then performed, followed by DAPI-labeling and imaging under the microscope. This is done in order to verify the uniformity, DNA packaging efficiency, fluorescence signal and structural stability of the phage stock. The initial adsorption of phages to bacteria is performed on ice, then followed by a short incubation at 35&deg;C to trigger viral DNA injection6. The phage/bacteria mixture is then moved to the surface of a thin nutrient agar slab, covered with a coverslip and imaged under an epifluorescence microscope. The post-infection process is followed for 4 hr, at 10 min interval. Multiple stage positions are tracked such that ~100 cell infections can be traced in a single experiment. At each position and time point, images are acquired in the phase-contrast and red and green fluorescent channels. The phase-contrast image is used later for automated cell recognition while the fluorescent channels are used to characterize the infection outcome: production of new fluorescent phages (green) followed by cell lysis, or expression of lysogeny factors (red) followed by resumed cell growth and division. The acquired time-lapse movies are processed using a combination of manual and automated methods. Data analysis results in the identification of infection parameters for each infection event (e.g. number and positions of infecting phages) as well as infection outcome (lysis/lysogeny). Additional parameters can be extracted if desired.

Following Cell-fate in E. coli After Infection by Phage Lambda

This article describes the procedure for preparing a fluorescently-labeled version of bacteriophage lambda, infection of E. coli bacteria, following the infection outcome under the microscope, and analysis of infection results.

The system comprising bacteriophage (phage) lambda and the bacterium E. coli has long served as a paradigm for cell-fate determination1,2. Following the ...

Oral Transmission of Listeria monocytogenes in Mice via Ingestion of Contaminated Food

L. monocytogenes are facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens that cause food borne infections in humans. Very little is known about the gastrointestinal phase of listeriosis due to the lack of a small animal model that closely mimics human disease. This paper describes a novel mouse model for oral transmission of L. monocytogenes. Using this model, mice fed L. monocytogenes-contaminated bread have a discrete phase of gastrointestinal infection, followed by varying degrees of systemic spread in susceptible (BALB/c/By/J) or resistant (C57BL/6) mouse strains. During the later stages of the infection, dissemination to the gall bladder and brain is observed. The food borne model of listeriosis is highly reproducible, does not require specialized skills, and can be used with a wide variety of bacterial isolates and laboratory mouse strains. As such, it is the ideal model to study both virulence strategies used by L. monocytogenes to promote intestinal colonization, as well as the host response to invasive food borne bacterial infection.

Oral Transmission of Listeria monocytogenes in Mice via Ingestion of Contaminated Food

This paper describes a novel method for oral infection of mice using Listeria monocytogenes-contaminated food. The protocol can readily be adapted for use with other food borne bacterial pathogens.

L. monocytogenes are facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens that cause food borne infections in humans. Very little is known about the ...

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Bacterial intracellular pathogens can be conceived as molecular tools to dissect cellular signaling cascades due to their capacity to exquisitely manipulate and subvert cell functions which are required for the infection of host target tissues. Among these bacterial pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram positive microorganism that has been used as a paradigm for intracellular parasitism in the characterization of cellular immune responses, and which has played instrumental roles in the discovery of molecular pathways controlling cytoskeletal and membrane trafficking dynamics. In this article, we describe a robust microscopical assay for the detection of late cellular infection stages of L. monocytogenes based on the fluorescent labeling of InlC, a secreted bacterial protein which accumulates in the cytoplasm of infected cells; this assay can be coupled to automated high-throughput small interfering RNA screens in order to characterize cellular signaling pathways involved in the up- or down-regulation of infection.

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram positive bacterial pathogen frequently used as a major model for the study of intracellular parasitism. Imaging late L. monocytogenes infection stages within the context of small-interfering RNA screens allows for the global study of cellular pathways required for bacterial infection of target host cells.

Bacterial intracellular  pathogens can be conceived as molecular tools to dissect cellular signaling  cascades due to their capacity to exquisitely ...

Intravital Microscopy Imaging of the Liver following Leishmania Infection: An Assessment of Hepatic Hemodynamics

Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful optical imaging technique that has made possible the visualization, monitoring and quantification of various biological events in real time and in live animals. This technology has greatly advanced our understanding of physiological processes and pathogen-mediated phenomena in specific organs.
In this study, IVM is applied to the mouse liver and protocols are designed to image in vivo the circulatory system of the liver and measure red blood cell (RBC) velocity in individual hepatic vessels. To visualize the different vessel subtypes that characterize the hepatic organ and perform blood flow speed measurements, C57Bl/6 mice are intravenously injected with a fluorescent plasma reagent that labels the liver-associated vasculature. IVM enables in vivo, real time, measurement of RBC velocity in a specific vessel of interest. Establishing this methodology will make it possible to investigate liver hemodynamics under physiological and pathological conditions. Ultimately, this imaging-based methodology will be important for studying the influence of L. donovani infection&#160;on hepatic hemodynamics.
This method can be applied to other infectious models and mouse organs and might be further extended to pre-clinical testing of a drug&#8217;s effect on inflammation by quantifying its effect on blood flow.

Intravital Microscopy Imaging of the Liver following Leishmania Infection: An Assessment of Hepatic Hemodynamics

This article reports on a detailed method for the dynamic measurement and quantification of blood flow velocity within individual blood vessels of the mouse liver vasculature using intravital microscopy imaging in combination with a specific methodology for image acquisition and analysis.

Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful optical imaging technique that has made possible the visualization, monitoring and quantification of various ...

Assessing Bacterial Invasion of Cardiac Cells in Culture and Heart Colonization in Infected Mice Using Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen that is capable of causing serious invasive infections in immunocompromised patients, the elderly, and pregnant women. The most common manifestations of listeriosis in humans include meningitis, encephalitis, and fetal abortion. A significant but much less documented sequelae of invasive L. monocytogenes infection involves the heart. The death rate from cardiac illness can be up to 35% despite treatment, however very little is known regarding L. monocytogenes colonization of cardiac tissue and its resultant pathologies. In addition, it has recently become apparent that subpopulations of L. monocytogenes have an enhanced capacity to invade and grow within cardiac tissue. This protocol describes in detail in vitro and in vivo methods that can be used for assessing cardiotropism of L. monocytogenes isolates. Methods are presented for the infection of H9c2 rat cardiac myoblasts in tissue culture as well as for the determination of bacterial colonization of the hearts of infected mice. These methods are useful not only for identifying strains with the potential to colonize cardiac tissue in infected animals, but may also facilitate the identification of bacterial gene products that serve to enhance cardiac cell invasion and/or drive changes in heart pathology. These methods also provide for the direct comparison of cardiotropism between multiple L. monocytogenes strains.

Assessing Bacterial Invasion of Cardiac Cells in Culture and Heart Colonization in Infected Mice Using Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes causes fetal infections in pregnant women and meningitis in susceptible populations. Subpopulations of bacteria can colonize cardiac tissue, causing myocarditis in patients and laboratory animals. Here we present a protocol that describes how to assess L. monocytogenes cardiac cell invasion in vitro and cardiac colonization in infected animals.

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen that is capable of causing serious invasive infections in immunocompromised ...

RNA Purification from Intracellularly Grown Listeria monocytogenes in Macrophage Cells

Analysis of the transcriptome of bacterial pathogens during mammalian infection is a valuable tool for studying genes and factors that mediate infection. However, isolating bacterial RNA from infected cells or tissues is a challenging task, since mammalian RNA mostly dominates the lysates of infected cells. Here we describe an optimized method for RNA isolation of Listeria monocytogenes bacteria growing within bone marrow derived macrophage cells. Upon infection, cells are mildly lysed and rapidly filtered to discard most of the host proteins and RNA, while retaining intact bacteria. Next, bacterial RNA is isolated using hot phenol-SDS extraction followed by DNase treatment. The extracted RNA is suitable for gene transcription analysis by multiple techniques. This method is successfully employed in our studies of Listeria monocytogenes gene regulation during infection of macrophage cells 1-4. The protocol can be easily modified to study other bacterial pathogens and cell types.

RNA Purification from Intracellularly Grown Listeria monocytogenes in Macrophage Cells

Here we describe a method for bacterial RNA isolation from Listeria monocytogenes bacteria growing inside murine macrophages. This technique can be used with other intracellular pathogens and mammalian host cells.

Analysis of the transcriptome of bacterial pathogens during mammalian infection is a valuable tool for studying genes and factors that mediate infection. ...

Experimental Infection with Listeria monocytogenes as a Model for Studying Host Interferon-&#947; Responses

L. monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium that is a cause of food borne disease in humans. Experimental infection of mice with this pathogen has been highly informative on the role of innate and adaptive immune cells and specific cytokines in host immunity against intracellular pathogens. Production of IFN-&#947; by innate cells during sublethal infection with L. monocytogenes is important for activating macrophages and early control of the pathogen1-3. In addition, IFN-&#947; production by adaptive memory lymphocytes is important for priming the activation of innate cells upon reinfection4. The L. monocytogenes infection model thus serves as a great tool for investigating whether new therapies that are designed to increase IFN-&#947; production have an impact on IFN-&#947; responses in vivo and have productive biological effects such as increasing bacterial clearance or improving mouse survival from infection. Described here is a basic protocol for how to conduct intraperitoneal infections of C57BL/6J mice with the EGD strain of L. monocytogenes and to measure IFN-&#947; production by NK cells, NKT cells, and adaptive lymphocytes by flow cytometry. In addition, procedures are described to: (1) grow and prepare the bacteria for inoculation, (2) measure bacterial load in the spleen and liver, and (3) measure animal survival to endpoints. Representative data are also provided to illustrate how this infection model can be used to test the effect of specific agents on IFN-&#947; responses to L. monocytogenes and survival of mice from this infection.

This protocol describes how to inoculate C57BL/6J mice with the EGD strain of Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) and to measure interferon-&#947; (IFN-&#947;) responses by natural killer (NK) cells, natural killer T (NKT) cells, and adaptive T lymphocytes post-infection. This protocol also describes how to conduct survival studies in mice after infection with a modified LD50 dose of the pathogen.

L. monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium that is a cause of food borne disease in humans. Experimental infection of mice with this pathogen has been ...

Optimized Interferon-gamma ELISpot Assay to Measure T Cell Responses in the Guinea Pig Model after Vaccination

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, influenza, diphtheria, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. We have demonstrated that plasmid-DNA (pDNA) vaccine delivery into the skin elicits robust humoral responses in the guinea pig. However, the use of this animal to model immune responses was somewhat limited in the past due to the lack of available reagents and protocols to study T cell responses. T cells play a pivotal role in both immunoprophylactic and immunotherapeutic mechanisms. Understanding T cell responses is crucial for the development of infectious disease and oncology vaccines and accommodating delivery devices. Here we describe an interferon-gamma (IFN-&#947;) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay for guinea pig peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The assay enables researchers to characterize vaccine-specific T-cell responses in this important rodent model. The ability to assay cells isolated from the peripheral blood provides the opportunity to track immunogenicity in individual animals.

The development of the interferon-gamma ELISpot assay for guinea pig PBMCs allows the characterization of T-cell responses in this highly relevant model for studying infectious diseases. We have applied the assay to measure T cell responses associated with intradermal delivery of DNA vaccines.

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, ...

Listeria monocytogenes Infection of the Brain

Listeria monocytogenes is an intracellular bacterial pathogen that is frequently associated with food-borne infection. The ability of&#160;L. monocytogenes to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is concerning as it can lead to life-threatening meningitis and encephalitis. The BBB protects the brain microenvironment from various toxic metabolites and microbial pathogens found in the blood following infection, and therefore supports brain homeostasis. The mechanisms by which L. monocytogenes present in the bloodstream cross the BBB to cause brain infections are not fully understood and there is also a lack of a robust model system to study brain infections by L. monocytogenes. Here, we present a simple mouse infection model to determine whether bacteria have crossed the BBB and to quantitate the burden of bacteria that have colonized the brain in vivo. In this method, animals were infected intravenously with L. monocytogenes and were humanely euthanized by exposure to CO2 followed by cervical dislocation. Cardiac perfusion of the animals was performed prior to harvesting infected organs. Blood was collected before perfusion and the number of bacteria per organ or mL of blood was determined by plating dilutions of the blood or organ homogenates on agar plates and counting the number of colonies formed. This method can be used to study novel receptor-ligand interactions that enhance infection of the brain by L. monocytogenes and can be easily adapted for the study of multiple bacterial pathogens.

Listeria monocytogenes Infection of the Brain

During infection, Listeria monocytogenes is capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier to colonize the brain. In this protocol, we demonstrate how to assess bacterial colonization of organs following infection of mice. A procedure to perform whole organ perfusion for specific determination of bacterial numbers in the brain parenchyma is provided.

Imaging of In Situ Interferon Gamma Production in the Mouse Spleen following Listeria monocytogenes Infection

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Optimized Interferon-gamma ELISpot Assay to Measure T Cell Responses in the Guinea Pig Model after Vaccination

Listeria monocytogenes Infection of the Brain