The authors wish to thank Claudia Roderigo and Simone Durry for expert technical assistance. We thank Dr. Niklas J. Gerkau and M.Sc. Joel Nelson for assistance in the preparation of the organotypic slice cultures. Research in the author&#39;s laboratory was funded by the German Research Association (DFG; FOR 2795: Ro 2327/13-1 and SPP 1757: Ro 2327/8-2 to CRR; and SPP 1757: Young Glia Start-Up funding to RL).

The authors declare no competing interests. The authors received financial support enabling open access publication by Nikon Microscope Solutions, D&#252;sseldorf, Germany, which produces instruments used in the video article. The company was neither involved in designing the experiments presented here, nor in their execution, nor in the data handling, nor in the manuscript writing.

Here, we demonstrate a procedure for the cell-type specific expression of ATeam1.03YEMK, a FRET-based, genetically encoded nanosensor14, for measurement of changes in ATP levels in astrocytes or neurons in organotypic tissue slice cultures of the mouse brain15. In exemplary recordings, we show that an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration does not result in a change in ATP concentrations in neurons, while astrocytic ATP levels rise in response to this manipulation. Moreover, our results demonstrate that upon inhibition of cellular metabolism, ATeam1.03YEMK FRET ratio rapidly drops in both cell types, indicating a rapid decrease in intracellular ATP.
Expression of ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic slice cultures requires maintenance of the tissue in culture under controlled conditions for at least 7-10 days. Alternatively, ATeam1.03YEMK can also be employed for measurement of ATP in acutely isolated brain tissue slices and in optic nerves of mice13,15. Measurements in acutely isolated tissue, however, necessitate the generation of transgenic animals or a stereotactic application of viral vectors into the brain, involving animal experimentation and strict animal care protocols. In this regard, ATeam1.03YEMK expression in organotypic tissue slice cultures represents a useful and valuable alternative22,23. For many years now, organotypic tissue slice cultures serve as an established model system to study neural properties, connectivity and development24,25,26. They not only maintain the general tissue architecture and lamination (Figure 1), but also host the preferential properties of cell cultures such as superior accessibility and direct control of experimental conditions. Organotypic tissue slice cultures are also routinely employed to express foreign genes by using viral vectors27. Several types of viral vectors have been reported to deliver transgenes into brain tissue16,28. Adenoviral vectors induce high expression in glial cells, but not hippocampal neurons16, and might generate glial reactivity17. Adeno-associated viral vectors as used here emerge as a good alternative15, and their effectiveness has also been shown in vivo29.
While mainly being used for the study of neuronal properties, recent studies have established that organotypic tissue slice cultures can also be employed for the analysis of astrocytes. Cultured slices are usually covered by a layer of reactive astrocytes19,30 (Figure 5), but astrocytes exhibit a more native, non-reactive morphology and cytoarchitecture in deeper layers19,30 (Figure 5). In the present study, we describe a procedure for the mechanical removal of the outer glial scar, which results in a better experimental and optical accessibility of native astrocytes within the proper organotypic tissue layers. Moreover, its removal improves the expression efficacy in deeper layers of the organotypic slices; if the glial scar is not removed, transduction by AAVs might tend to be restricted to the superficial cell layers.
Several external mechanical factors need to be considered when performing experiments in tissue slices. A variation in bath perfusion velocity can induce movements of the entire preparation and/or induce changes in focus, resulting in artificial transient changes of the sensor signal. Moreover, both astrocytes and neurons have been reported to respond to mechanical deformation such as imposed by high perfusion rates32,33. In our hands, using a reliable peristaltic pump, together with maintaining small and stable volumes of saline between the tissue and the objective (meniscus) results in a stable FRET-signal under baseline conditions at the perfusion velocity used here (1.5-2.5 mL/min; Figure 8).
In the present study, we also demonstrate that FRET-based imaging with ATeam1.03YEMK can be employed to monitor ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes. An alternative means introduced earlier for measurement of cellular ATP is the so-called luciferin-luciferase assay34,35,36,37. This approach, however, is based on imaging of bioluminescence and only provides a rather low temporal and spatial resolution partly due to high background noise levels. Another method routinely employed in recent years was the imaging of changes in the intracellular magnesium concentration using the ion-sensitive fluorophore magnesium green38,39,40. This approach relates to the observation that a consumption of ATP results in the release of its co-factor magnesium. Imaging with magnesium green thereby only provides a secondary estimate of changes in ATP levels. Moreover, magnesium green is also sensitive to changes in intracellular calcium, introducing another difficulty when interpreting results obtained with this method.
The recent development of genetically-encoded nanosensors for direct imaging of cellular metabolites, therefore, represented a big step forward11,12. Several different sensors were generated that can be employed for measurement of intracellular ATP36,41,42,43. Among those are the ratiometric fluorescent ATP indicator &#34;QUEEN&#34;41 as well as PercevalHR, which senses the ATP:ADP ratio42. While the latter probe is a valuable tool for the study of the energy status of cells, it requires simultaneous measurement of changes in pH42.
ATeam is a nanosensor of which several variants exist, which &#8212; among others &#8212; differ in their binding affinity for ATP14. In vitro, ATeam1.03YEMK exhibits a Kd of 1.2 mM at 37 &#176;C, which is close to cellular ATP levels determined in different neuronal cell types, ranging from hypothalamus and cerebellum34 to hippocampus37,44,45. In cuvette measurements, lowering the temperature by 10 &#176;C resulted in a significant decrease in the binding affinity of ATeam1.03YEMK to ATP, suggesting that it might not be ideal for cellular imaging at room temperature14. Our earlier study15, however, demonstrated that the behavior and response of ATeam1.03YEMK expressed in neurons and astrocytes to different manipulations is similar at near physiological and at room temperature, indicating that the sensor allows reliable determination of intracellular ATP levels under both conditions. In addition, our previous experiments addressed the pH-sensitivity of ATeam1.03YEMK expressed inside cells15, showing that it is insensitive to changes in intracellular pH by about 0.1-0.2 pH units. If the Kd in the low mM range is a concern, alternative ATeam variants might be used14, among them red-shifted variants of ATeam (&#34;GO-ATeam&#34;)43.
Our experiments using ATeam1.03YEMK demonstrate that an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration by a few mM only (from 3 to 8 mM) results in a transient increase in the ATeam1.03YEMK ratio in astrocytes in organotypic slice culture. This observation confirms earlier studies15,46 and clearly indicates that astrocytes respond to the release of potassium by active neurons with an increase in their ATP production, mostly likely as a consequence of a stimulation of the Na+/K+-ATPase and the Na+/HCO3- cotransporter, respectively47,48. In contrast to this, neurons did not show a response, which is in line with previous work as well15. Both cell types, however, rapidly and strongly reacted to inhibition of cellular glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration as shown before15. Under conditions of chemical ischemia, ATeam FRET ratios fell to a new stable level, indicating a nominal depletion of cellular ATP. The latter result suggests that both neurons as well as astrocytes exhibit a relevant consumption of ATP also under steady-state conditions without additional stimulation by synaptic activation or application of neurotransmitters. Taken together, we conclude that FRET-based imaging with genetically encoded nanosensors, among them ATeam1.03YEMK, will provide a valuable approach to elucidate the cellular processes that are responsible for changes in intracellular ATP levels and cellular ATP consumption under different conditions.

Excitatory electrical activity of neurons is largely based on the flux of cations such as sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) across their plasma membranes. Maintenance of the electrochemical gradients of these two ions is thus required for signaling. This is accomplished by the cellular Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA), an ubiquitously expressed electrogenic transmembrane pump, which extrudes 3 Na+ out of the cell in exchange for 2 K+ from the extracellular space, requiring the consumption of one molecule of ATP per transport cycle1. In addition to the NKA, there are several other ATP-consuming ion transporters including the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase, which is vital for intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and its export following activity-induced influx2. In presynaptic vesicles, a vacuolar-type H+-ATPase (v-ATPase) creates the proton gradient necessary for neurotransmitter uptake into this compartment3.
While activity of neurons thus requires a substantial amount of ATP4, they do not exhibit a significant capacity for storage of energy. Instead, they seem to rely on metabolic interactions with neighboring astrocytes, the major glycogen stores in the brain5. It has been suggested that astrocytic glycogen indeed plays an important role in supporting neuronal energy needs; and a key phenomenon in this proposed neuro-metabolic coupling between the two cell types is the capacity of astrocytes to increase their ATP production in response to neuronal activity6,7,8. This hypothesis, known as astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS), is still under debate, because other work has provided evidence that neurons may also increase their own rate of glycolysis in response to stimulation9,10, reflecting the necessity of further methods and approaches to study neuro-glia interaction.
Investigation of cellular energy metabolism and ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes to elucidate neuro-glia metabolic interactions has long been hampered by the lack of suitable probes for the detection of changes in metabolite concentrations in living cells in brain tissue. The last decade, however, has provided a surge in the development of new tools and new genetically encoded fluorescent probes for different metabolites, including sensors for ATP, lactate, pyruvate and others11,12. Using these tools, it is now possible to directly address questions related to cellular ATP consumption and changes in cellular energy levels at the single cell level and in a cell-type specific manner in intact brain tissue13.
In the present work, we describe a procedure to visualize cytosolic ATP dynamics on neurons and astrocytes of cultured organotypic brain slices. We show how to employ adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) for cell-type specific expression of the genetically encoded ATP-nanosensor ATeam1.03YEMK (14) in neurons and astrocytes of slices of mouse brain that can be maintained in cell culture for several weeks15. A procedure of how to remove the glial scar that covers cultured tissue slices is described, which improves optical accessibility and imaging of cells in the organotypic tissue layers underneath. Finally, we show how ATeam1.03YEMK can be used to perform FRET-based imaging of changes in cellular ATP levels in this preparation. This method hosts the major advantages that it does not require surgical brain procedures, provides high levels of expression of the sensor and cell type specificity in cultured brain slices, reducing invasiveness or stress in the cells as compared with other methods, like transfection by electroporation or transduction with other viral vectors10,16,17. In addition, this protocol can be applied to other FRET based nanosensors, among them variants of ATeam1.03 that provide lower binding affinity for ATP14.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-deoxyglucose</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>L07338</td>
			<td>Non-metabolizable glucose analog</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>36-IMA-410-019 Argon laser</td>
			<td>Melles Griot</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>488 nm wavelength argon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ascorbic acid</td>
			<td>Carl Roth</td>
			<td>3525.1</td>
			<td>Antioxidant, Vitamin C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>band pass filters 483/32</td>
			<td>AHF Analysentechnik AG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Splitter compatible emmision filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>band pass filters 542/27</td>
			<td>AHF Analysentechnik AG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Splitter compatible emmision filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beamsplitter T 455 LP</td>
			<td>AHF Analysentechnik AG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Excitation dichroic mirror</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beamsplitter T 505 LPXR</td>
			<td>AHF Analysentechnik AG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Splitter dichroic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal laser scannig microscope C1</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Modular confocal microscope system C1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data processing Origin Pro 9.0.0 (64-bit)</td>
			<td>OriginLab corporation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Scientific graphing and data analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-glucose monohydrate</td>
			<td>Caelo</td>
			<td>2580-1kg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS</td>
			<td>GIBCO/Life</td>
			<td>14190250</td>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate-buffered saline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eclipse E 600FN upright microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eclipse FN1 upright microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Experimental chamber</td>
			<td>custom build</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Perfusion chamber for live-cell imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EZ-C1 Silver Version 3.91</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Imaging software for confocal microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#39; Balanced Salt solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H9394</td>
			<td>With Phenol Red for pH monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HERAcell 150</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CO2 incubator HERAcell &#174; 150 with decontamination routine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HERAsafe KS/KSP</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Safety Cabinet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Horse serum</td>
			<td>GIBCO/Life</td>
			<td>26050088</td>
			<td>Heat inactivated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Huygens Professional</td>
			<td>SVI Imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Deconvolution software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J 1.52i</td>
			<td>Wayne Rasban national Institute of Health</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Image processing Software available in the public domain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I6634</td>
			<td>Insulin from bovine pancreas</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IP serie peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>Ismatec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>High-precisionmulti-channel pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Layout software, Illustrator CS6</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Vector graphics editor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-glutamine</td>
			<td>GIBCO/Life</td>
			<td>25030024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microm HM 650 V</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Vibration microtome. Thermo scientific discontinued the production of the device in the meantime. Any other slicer or tissue chopper siutable for slicing living tissue is fine, too.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope stage</td>
			<td>custom build</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsoft Excel 16</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Spreadsheet software for basic data processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Millicell culture insert</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>PICM0RG50</td>
			<td>Hydrophilized PTFE, pore size 0.4 &#956;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minimum Essential Medium Eagle</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M7278</td>
			<td>Synthetic cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monochromator Polychrome V</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific/FEI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ultra fast switching monochromator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaN3 (Sodium Azide)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S-8032</td>
			<td>Mitochondrial inhibitor (complex IV inhibitor). CAUTION: Azide is toxic. Be aware not to accidentally ingest or inhale it, and prevent ist absoption through the skin.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nikon Fluor 40x / 0.80 W DIC M &#8734;/0 WD 2.0</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Water Immersion Microscope Objective</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIS Elements 4.50 advanced Research</td>
			<td>Nikon Microscope Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Imaging software. Upgraded version for FRET imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ORCA-Flash4.0</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu Photonics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Digital CMOS camera</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perfusion tubing</td>
			<td>Pro Liquid GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tygon tubing, 1.52 x 322 mm (Wd: 0.85)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoshop CS 6 Version 13.0</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Image processing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium L-lactate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>71718-10G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ssAAV-2/2-hSyn1-ATeam1.03YEMK-WPRE-hGHp(A)</td>
			<td>ETH Z&#252;rich</td>
			<td>v244</td>
			<td>Single-stranded AAV vector that induces the expression of ATeam1.03YEMK under the control of the human synapsin 1 promoter fragment hSyn1.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ssAAV-5/2-hGFAP-hHBbI/E-ATeam1.03YEMK-WPRE-bGHp(A)</td>
			<td>ETH Z&#252;rich</td>
			<td>v307</td>
			<td>Single-stranded AAV vector that induces the expression of ATeam1.03YEMK under the control of the human glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter fragment ABC1D.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>WVIEW GEMINI optic system</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu Photonics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Emission Image Splitter</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

imaging of intracellular atp in organotypic tissue slices of the mouse brain using the fret-based sensor ateam1.03yemk

Neuronal activity in the central nervous system (CNS) evokes a high demand on cellular energy provided by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A large share of ATP is needed to re-install ion gradients across plasma membranes degraded by electrical signaling of neurons. There is evidence that astrocytes - while not generating fast electrical signals themselves - undergo increased production of ATP in response to neuronal activity and support active neurons by providing energy metabolites to them. The recent development of genetically encoded sensors for different metabolites now enables the study of such metabolic interactions between neurons and astrocytes. Here, we describe a protocol for cell-type specific expression of the ATP-sensitive Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer- (FRET-) sensor ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic tissue slice cultures of the mouse hippocampus and cortex using adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV). Furthermore, we demonstrate how this sensor can be employed for dynamic measurement of changes in cellular ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes upon increases in extracellular potassium and following induction of chemical ischemia (i.e., an inhibition of cellular energy metabolism).

AAV vectors are a reliable tool to selectively express foreign genes in cells within living tissue16. Direct application of AAVs containing the sequence cassette of ATeam1.03YEMK and a specific promoter results in a high expression of the sensor in the chosen cell type. At DIV 14 (~10 days after a transduction), neurons expressing ATeam under the human synapsin promoter are found at high density in the neocortex of cultured tissue slices at depths of up to 50 &#181;m below the slice surface (Figure 5A). Comparable results can be achieved in the hippocampus (Figure 5B).
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig5a.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Visualization of neurons expressing ATeam1.03YEMK in cultured parasagittal organotypic brain slices. Images on the left correspond to extended focus projections of 43 optical sections (1.05 &#181;m each) of cortical tissue (A) and (B) of 70 optical sections (0.6 &#181;m each) of hippocampal tissue. Images on the right represent the volume view of the same projection. Cells are color-coded according to their depth relative to the slice surface as indicated by the color scale on the right. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
For the measurement of ATP levels in astrocytes, ATeam1.03YEMK is expressed under the control of the human glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter. This results in efficient transduction of cells in both neocortex and hippocampus of cultured tissue slices (Figure 6). Notably, two different morphological phenotypes can be distinguished, depending on the depth relative to the surface of slice preparations. In the first, superficial layer, cells are characterized by thick primary processes that are predominately arranged in parallel to the surface. These cells exhibit strongly overlapping domains, creating a dense meshwork of apparently reactive astrocytes (Figure 6). In deeper layers (30-60 &#181;m from the surface), transduced astrocytes exhibit fine cellular processes that form largely spherical domains and their morphology resembles that of astrocytes in situ as reported earlier19,20,21 (Figure 6). To obtain better transduction of deeper-layer astrocytes as well as better optical access to these deeper layers, the glial scar tissue can be removed as described in Step 4.
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig6a.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Visualization of astrocytes expressing ATeam1.03YEMK in cultured parasagittal organotypic brain slices. The image on the left corresponds to an extended focus projection of 191 optical sections (0.45 &#181;m each). For illustration purposes, the glial scar was excluded from the projection of astrocytes. Images on the right represent the volume view of the same projection before and after removal of the glial scar. Cells are color-coded according to their depth relative to the slice surface as indicated by the color scales on the right. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Successful expression of ATeam1.03YEMK allows the dynamic measurement of changes in ATP levels in neurons or astrocytes, depending on the promoter used (see above). Experiments were performed in an experimental bath constantly perfused with E-ACSF (bubbled with 95% O2/5% CO2). In organotypic slices expressing ATeam1.03YEMK in hippocampal neurons, regions of interest (ROIs) were selected before starting the recording, representing the somata of pyramidal cells (Figure 7A). Moreover, a region for background subtraction was chosen (Figure 7A). Emission of Venus as well as eCFP fluorescence was then collected for each of these ROIs separately and depicted as fluorescence emission level over time (Figure 7B). After recording fluorescence under control conditions for several minutes to ensure a stable baseline, cellular metabolism was inhibited by exposing the slice preparation to a glucose-free saline, to which 5 mM sodium azide (NaN3) was added for one minute (Figure 7B). This manipulation induced opposite changes in the emission intensity of the FRET pair (Figure 7B, left panels), with a decrease of Venus (527 nm) and an increase of eCFP (475 nm) emission. Calculating the FRET ratio by dividing the fluorescence emission of Venus by that of eCFP (FVenus/FeCFP) resulted in signals that reflect the relative changes in the intracellular ATP levels, the so-called &#34;ATeam FRET ratio&#34; (Figure 7B, right panel). In all recorded neurons (n = 70 cells in N = 5 slices), NaN3 caused a reversible decrease in the ATeam FRET ratio, indicating a reversible decrease in intracellular ATP levels upon inhibition of cellular metabolism.
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig7a.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Demonstration of time lapse ATeam FRET ratio imaging. (A) Top left: Wide-field fluorescence image of the pyramidal layer and stratum radiatum of the CA1 region of a cultured organotypic hippocampal slice expressing ATeam1.03YEMK in neurons. Top right: Enlarged view of boxed section as indicated on the left. White lines delineate regions of interest (ROIs) 1-3 representing cell bodies of CA1 pyramidal neurons chosen for analysis in (B). BG represents the ROI chosen for background correction. Bottom: Pseudo-colored images representing fluorescence emission of Venus (green), eCFP (purple) and the ratio of Venus/eCFP. (B) Time lapse recording in ROIs 1-3, representing neuronal cell bodies (see A). Traces on the left show normalized fluorescence emission of Venus (green) and eCFP (magenta). Traces on the right show the corresponding ATeam FRET ratio. Note that perfusion with 5 mM NaN3 in the absence of extracellular glucose for 1 minute (grey bar) induces a reversible decrease in the ATeam FRET ratio, indicating a decrease in intracellular ATP concentration. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig7alarge.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
To ensure the stability of the preparation and the sensor under long-term experiment conditions, slices expressing ATeam in neurons or astrocytes were constantly perfused with ACSF for prolonged periods (&#62;50 min; n = 12 cells each, N = 3 OTCs from 3 brains). Under these conditions, the ATeam FRET ratio did not change (Figure 8). Exposing the preparations to CIS containing metabolic inhibitors (&#34;Chemical ischemia&#34;, see Table 1), in contrast, again resulted in the expected drop in the ATeam FRET ratio as observed above.
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig8a.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: Baseline experiments employing ATeam. Long-term ATeam FRET ratio imaging in 14 different cells under baseline conditions in neurons (top) and astrocytes (bottom). Data were taken under comparable conditions as other experimental data. At the end of each measurement, chemical ischemia was elicited by perfusion with CIS as indicated by the arrow. NOTE: Baseline ATeam FRET ratios are stable over time under baseline conditions. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Next, we analyzed the responses of neurons and astrocytes expressing ATeam1.03YEMK to an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration. After establishing a stable baseline, neurons were perfused with a saline in which the potassium concentration was increased from 3 to 8 mM for 3 minutes (Figure 9A). This manipulation did, however, not result in a detectable change in the ATeam FRET ratio (n = 56 cells in N = 5 slices). To ensure that the sensor reacted to a change in ATP levels, slices were then again exposed to a sustained period of chemical ischemia elicited by replacing E-ACSF by CIS. Chemical ischemia resulted in a rapid decrease in the ATeam FRET ratio to a new, stable level, indicating nominal depletion of ATP after 2-3 min (Figure 9A).
<img alt="Figure 9" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig9a.jpg" /> 
Figure 9: Representative experiments illustrating changes in ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes. (A,B): Images on the left show ATeam fluorescence from neurons and astrocytes located in the hippocampal CA1 region of organotypic slices. Traces on the right represent time lapse recordings of the ATeam FRET ratio obtained from a ROI positioned over a single cell body. In both experiments, slices were first subjected to an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration for 3 minutes (see bar), followed by a final exposure to chemical ischemia. Note that while neurons do not respond to the elevation of extracellular potassium (A), astrocytes react with an increase in ATP (B). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60294/60294fig9large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The same experimental protocol was performed with slices, in which ATeam1.03YEMK was expressed in astrocytes. In contrast to what was observed in neurons, astrocytes reacted to the increase in extracellular potassium by a reversible increase in the ATeam FRET ratio, indicating an increase in intracellular ATP levels (n = 70 cells in N = 5 slices) (Figure 9B). Subsequent exposure to chemical ischemia resulted, as expected, in a large drop in the ATeam FRET ratio, indicative of nominal depletion of intracellular ATP (Figure 9B).

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK at JoVE.com

Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK

We describe a protocol for cell-type specific expression of the genetically encoded FRET-based sensor ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic slice cultures of the mouse forebrain. Furthermore, we show how to use this sensor for dynamic imaging of cellular ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes.

Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK

Neuronal activity in the central nervous system (CNS) evokes a high demand on cellular energy provided by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A ...

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9.5K Views.  Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf. We describe a protocol for cell-type specific expression of the genetically encoded FRET-based sensor ATeam1.03YEMK in organotypic slice cultures of the mouse forebrain. Furthermore, we show how to use this sensor for dynamic imaging of cellular ATP levels in neurons and astrocytes.

Video: Imaging of Intracellular ATP in Organotypic Tissue Slices of the Mouse Brain using the FRET-based Sensor ATeam1.03YEMK

Time-lapse Imaging of Neuroblast Migration in Acute Slices of the Adult Mouse Forebrain

There is a substantial body of evidence indicating that new functional neurons are constitutively generated from an endogenous pool of neural stem cells in restricted areas of the adult mammalian brain. Newborn neuroblasts from the subventricular zone (SVZ) migrate along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) to their final destination in the olfactory bulb (OB)1. In the RMS, neuroblasts migrate tangentially in chains ensheathed by astrocytic processes2,3 using blood vessels as a structural support and a source of molecular factors required for migration4,5. In the OB, neuroblasts detach from the chains and migrate radially into the different bulbar layers where they differentiate into interneurons and integrate into the existing network1, 6.
In this manuscript we describe the procedure for monitoring cell migration in acute slices of the rodent brain. The use of acute slices allows the assessment of cell migration in the microenvironment that closely resembling to in vivo conditions and in brain regions that are difficult to access for in vivo imaging. In addition, it avoids long culturing condition as in the case of organotypic and cell cultures that may eventually alter the migration properties of the cells. Neuronal precursors in acute slices can be visualized using DIC optics or fluorescent proteins. Viral labeling of neuronal precursors in the SVZ, grafting neuroblasts from reporter mice into the SVZ of wild-type mice, and using transgenic mice that express fluorescent protein in neuroblasts are all suitable methods for visualizing neuroblasts and following their migration. The later method, however, does not allow individual cells to be tracked for long periods of time because of the high density of labeled cells. We used a wide-field fluorescent upright microscope equipped with a CCD camera to achieve a relatively rapid acquisition interval (one image every 15 or 30 sec) to reliably identify the stationary and migratory phases. A precise identification of the duration of the stationary and migratory phases is crucial for the unambiguous interpretation of results. We also performed multiple z-step acquisitions to monitor neuroblasts migration in 3D. Wide-field fluorescent imaging has been used extensively to visualize neuronal migration7-10. Here, we describe detailed protocol for labeling neuroblasts, performing real-time video-imaging of neuroblast migration in acute slices of the adult mouse forebrain, and analyzing cell migration. While the described protocol exemplified the migration of neuroblasts in the adult RMS, it can also be used to follow cell migration in embryonic and early postnatal brains.

We describe a protocol for real-time videoimaging of neuronal migration in the mouse forebrain. The migration of virally-labeled or grafted neuronal precursors was recorded in acute live slices using wide-field fluorescent imaging with a relatively rapid acquisition interval to study the different phases of cell migration, including the durations of the stationary and migration phases and the speed of migration.

There is a substantial body of evidence indicating that new functional neurons are constitutively generated from an endogenous pool of neural stem cells ...

Paired Whole Cell Recordings in Organotypic Hippocampal Slices

Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct electrophysiological characterization of the synaptic connections between individual neurons, but also pharmacological manipulation of either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic neuron. When carried out in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures, the probability that two neurons are synaptically connected is significantly increased. This preparation readily enables identification of cell types, and the neurons maintain their morphology and properties of synaptic function similar to that in native brain tissue. A major advantage of paired whole cell recordings is the highly precise information it can provide on the properties of synaptic transmission and plasticity that are not possible with other more crude techniques utilizing extracellular axonal stimulation. Paired whole cell recordings are often perceived as too challenging to perform. While there are challenging aspects to this technique, paired recordings can be performed by anyone trained in whole cell patch clamping provided specific hardware and methodological criteria are followed. The probability of attaining synaptically connected paired recordings significantly increases with healthy organotypic slices and stable micromanipulation allowing independent attainment of pre- and postsynaptic whole cell recordings. While CA3-CA3 pyramidal cell pairs are most widely used in the organotypic slice hippocampal preparation, this technique has also been successful in CA3-CA1 pairs and can be adapted to any neurons that are synaptically connected in the same slice preparation. In this manuscript we provide the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in any laboratory equipped for electrophysiology.

Pair recordings are simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling precise electrophysiological and pharmacological characterization of the synapses between individual neurons. Here we describe the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures in any laboratory equipped for electrophysiology.

Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct ...

Regioselective Biolistic Targeting in Organotypic Brain Slices Using a Modified Gene Gun

Transfection of DNA has been invaluable for biological sciences and with recent advances to organotypic brain slice preparations, the effect of various heterologous genes could thus be investigated easily while maintaining many aspects of in vivo biology. There has been increasing interest to transfect terminally differentiated neurons for which conventional transfection methods have been fraught with difficulties such as low yields and significant losses in viability. Biolistic transfection can circumvent many of these difficulties yet only recently has this technique been modified so that it is amenable for use in mammalian tissues.
New modifications to the accelerator chamber have enhanced the gene gun&#39;s firing accuracy and increased its depths of penetration while also allowing the use of lower gas pressure (50 psi) without loss of transfection efficiency as well as permitting a focused regioselective spread of the particles to within 3 mm. In addition, this technique is straight forward and faster to perform than tedious microinjections. Both transient and stable expression are possible with nanoparticle bombardment where episomal expression can be detected within 24 hr and the cell survival was shown to be better than, or at least equal to, conventional methods. This technique has however one crucial advantage: it permits the transfection to be localized within a single restrained radius thus enabling the user to anatomically isolate the heterologous gene&#39;s effects. Here we present an in-depth protocol to prepare viable adult organotypic slices and submit them to regioselective transfection using an improved gene gun.

Recent improvements in organotypic brain slice preparations have permitted their exploitation for biotechnological applications. Organotypic slices maintain local structural characteristics of in vivo biology, including functional synaptic connections. Here we present a regioselective biolistic delivery method to label and genetically manipulate these slices.

Transfection of DNA has been invaluable for biological sciences and with recent advances to organotypic brain slice preparations, the effect of various ...

Imaging Serotonergic Fibers in the Mouse Spinal Cord Using the CLARITY/CUBIC Technique

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord of the majority of these fiber systems have not been thoroughly investigated in any species. Serotonergic fibers, which project to the spinal cord, have been studied in rats and opossums on histological sections and their functional significance has been deduced based on their fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord. With the development of CLARITY and CUBIC techniques, it is possible to investigate this fiber system and its distribution in the spinal cord, which is likely to reveal previously unknown features of serotonergic supraspinal pathways. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for imaging the serotonergic fibers in the mouse spinal cord using the combined CLARITY and CUBIC techniques. The method involves perfusion of a mouse with a hydrogel solution and clarification of the tissue with a combination of clearing reagents. Spinal cord tissue was cleared in just under two weeks, and the subsequent immunofluorescent staining against serotonin was completed in less than ten days. With a multi-photon fluorescent microscope, the tissue was scanned and a 3D image was reconstructed using Osirix software.

Supraspinal projections are important for pain perception and other behaviors, and serotonergic fibers are one of these fiber systems. The present study focused on the application of the combined CLARITY/CUBIC protocol to the mouse spinal cord in order to investigate the termination of these serotonergic fibers.

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal ...

In-depth Physiological Analysis of Defined Cell Populations in Acute Tissue Slices of the Mouse Vomeronasal Organ

In most mammals, the vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a chemosensory structure that detects both hetero- and conspecific social cues. Vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) express a specific type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) from at least three different chemoreceptor gene families allowing sensitive and specific detection of chemosensory cues. These families comprise the V1r and V2r gene families as well as the formyl peptide receptor (FPR)-related sequence (Fpr-rs) family of putative chemoreceptor genes. In order to understand the physiology of vomeronasal receptor-ligand interactions and downstream signaling, it is essential to identify the biophysical properties inherent to each specific class of VSNs.
The physiological approach described here allows identification and in-depth analysis of a defined population of sensory neurons using a transgenic mouse line (Fpr-rs3-i-Venus). The use of this protocol, however, is not restricted to this specific line and thus can easily be extended to other genetically modified lines or wild type animals.

Here, we describe a physiological approach that allows identification and in-depth analysis of a defined population of sensory neurons in acute coronal tissue slices of the mouse vomeronasal organ using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings.

In most mammals, the vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a chemosensory structure that detects both hetero- and conspecific social cues. Vomeronasal sensory ...

Time-lapse Confocal Imaging of Migrating Neurons in Organotypic Slice Culture of Embryonic Mouse Brain Using In Utero Electroporation

In utero electroporation is a rapid and powerful approach to study the process of radial migration in the cerebral cortex of developing mouse embryos. It has helped to describe the different steps of radial migration and characterize the molecular mechanisms controlling this process. To directly and dynamically analyze migrating neurons they have to be traced over time. This protocol describes a workflow that combines in utero electroporation with organotypic slice culture and time-lapse confocal imaging, which allows for a direct examination and dynamic analysis of radially migrating cortical neurons. Furthermore, detailed characterization of migrating neurons, such as migration speed, speed profiles, as well as radial orientation changes, is possible. The method can easily be adapted to perform functional analyses of genes of interest in radially migrating cortical neurons by loss and gain of function as well as rescue experiments. Time-lapse imaging of migrating neurons is a state-of-the-art technique that once established is a potent tool to study the development of the cerebral cortex in mouse models of neuronal migration disorders.

Time-lapse Confocal Imaging of Migrating Neurons in Organotypic Slice Culture of Embryonic Mouse Brain Using In Utero Electroporation

This protocol provides instructions for direct observation of radially migrating cortical neurons. In utero electroporation, organotypic slice culture, and time-lapse confocal imaging are combined to directly and dynamically study the effects of overexpression or downregulation of genes of interest in migrating neurons and to analyze their differentiation during development.

In utero electroporation is a rapid and powerful approach to study the process of radial migration in the cerebral cortex of developing mouse embryos. It ...

Recording Synaptic Plasticity in Acute Hippocampal Slices Maintained in a Small-volume Recycling-, Perfusion-, and Submersion-type Chamber System

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful analysis of synaptic transmission modulation when performing field potential or intracellular recordings. This manuscript describes methodological aspects that might be helpful in improving experimental conditions for the maintenance of acute brain slices and for recording field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a commercially available submersion chamber with an outflow-carbogenation unit. The outflow-carbogenation helps to stabilize the oxygen level in experiments that rely on the recycling of a small buffer reservoir to enhance the cost-efficiency of drug experiments. In addition, the manuscript presents representative experiments that examine the effects of different carbogenation modes and stimulation paradigms on the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of synaptic transmission.

This protocol describes the stabilization of the oxygen level in a small volume of recycled buffer and methodological aspects of recording activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in submerged acute hippocampal slices.

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful ...

Visualization and Live Imaging of Oligodendrocyte Organelles in Organotypic Brain Slices Using Adeno-associated Virus and Confocal Microscopy

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced tools currently used to study neurons, have only partly been taken on by oligodendrocyte researchers. Cell type-specific staining by viral transduction is a useful approach to study live organelle dynamics. This paper describes a protocol for visualizing oligodendrocyte mitochondria in organotypic brain slices by transduction with adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying genes for mitochondrial targeted fluorescent proteins under the transcriptional control of the myelin basic protein promoter. It includes the protocol for making organotypic coronal mouse brain slices. A procedure for time-lapse imaging of mitochondria then follows. These methods can be transferred to other organelles and may be particularly useful for studying organelles in the myelin sheath. Finally, we describe a readily available technique for visualization of unstained myelin in living slices by Confocal Reflectance microscopy (CoRe). CoRe requires no extra equipment and can be useful to identify the myelin sheath during live imaging.

Myelinating oligodendrocytes promote rapid action potential propagation and neuronal survival. Described here is a protocol for oligodendrocyte-specific expression of fluorescent proteins in organotypic brain slices with subsequent time-lapse imaging. Further, a simple procedure for visualizing unstained myelin is presented.

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced ...

Two-photon Imaging of Microglial Processes' Attraction Toward ATP or Serotonin in Acute Brain Slices

Microglial cells are resident innate immune cells of the brain that constantly scan their environment with their long processes and, upon disruption of homeostasis, undergo rapid morphological changes. For example, a laser lesion induces in a few minutes an oriented growth of microglial processes, also called &#34;directional motility&#34;, toward the site of injury. A similar effect can be obtained by delivering locally ATP or serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]). In this article, we describe a protocol to induce a directional growth of microglial processes toward a local application of ATP or 5-HT in acute brain slices of young and adult mice and to image this attraction over time by multiphoton microscopy. A simple method of quantification with free and open-source image analysis software is proposed. A challenge that still characterizes acute brain slices is the limited time, decreasing with age, during which the cells remain in a physiological state. This protocol, thus, highlights some technical improvements (medium, air-liquid interface chamber, imaging chamber with a double perfusion) aimed at optimizing the viability of microglial cells over several hours, especially in slices from adult mice.

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, respond quickly with morphological changes to modifications of their environment. This protocol describes how to use two-photon microscopy to study the attraction of microglial processes toward serotonin or ATP in acute brain slices of mice.

Microglial cells are resident innate immune cells of the brain that constantly scan their environment with their long processes and, upon disruption of ...

Labeling and Imaging of Amyloid Plaques in Brain Tissue Using the Natural Polyphenol Curcumin

Deposition of amyloid beta protein (A&#946;) in extra- and intracellular spaces is one of the hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). Therefore, detection of the presence of A&#946; in AD brain tissue is a valuable tool for developing new treatments to prevent the progression of AD. Several classical amyloid binding dyes, fluorochrome, imaging probes, and A&#946;-specific antibodies have been used to detect A&#946; histochemically in AD brain tissue. Use of these compounds for A&#946; detection is costly and time consuming. However, because of its intense fluorescent activity, high-affinity, and specificity for A&#946;, as well as structural similarities with traditional amyloid binding dyes, curcumin (Cur) is a promising candidate for labeling and imaging of A&#946; plaques in postmortem brain tissue. It is a natural polyphenol from the herb Curcuma longa. In the present study, Cur was used to histochemically label A&#946; plaques from both a genetic mouse model of 5x familial Alzheimer&#39;s disease (5xFAD) and from human AD tissue within a minute. The labeling capability of Cur was compared to conventional amyloid binding dyes, such as thioflavin-S (Thio-S), Congo red (CR), and Fluoro-jade C (FJC), as well as A&#946;-specific antibodies (6E10 and A11). We observed that Cur is the most inexpensive and quickest way to label and image A&#946; plaques when compared to these conventional dyes and is comparable to A&#946;-specific antibodies. In addition, Cur binds with most A&#946; species, such as oligomers and fibrils. Therefore, Cur could be used as the most cost-effective, simple, and quick fluorochrome detection agent for A&#946; plaques.

Curcumin is an ideal fluorophore for labeling and imaging of amyloid beta protein plaques in brain tissue due to its preferential binding to amyloid beta protein as well as its structural similarities with other traditional amyloid binding dyes. It can be used to label and image amyloid beta protein plaques more efficiently and inexpensively than traditional methods.

Deposition of amyloid beta protein (A&#946;) in extra- and intracellular spaces is one of the hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). ...