This report was funded by Luminex Corporation (Austin, TX). The authors thank Matthew Silverman PhD (Biomedical Publishing Solutions, Delray Beach, FL) for scientific editing assistance.

<ol>
	<li>Cameron, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+multiplex+microsphere+IgG+assay+for+SARS-CoV-2+using+ACE2-mediated+inhibition+as+a+surrogate+for+neutralization.">A multiplex microsphere IgG assay for SARS-CoV-2 using ACE2-mediated inhibition as a surrogate for neutralization.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 59 (2), 02489 (2020).</li><li>Waterboer, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiplex+human+papillomavirus+serology+based+on+in+situ-purified+glutathione+s-transferase+fusion+proteins.">Multiplex human papillomavirus serology based on in situ-purified glutathione s-transferase fusion proteins.</a> Clinical Chemistry. 51 (10), 1845-1853 (2005).</li><li>Pickering, J. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+multiplexed+fluorescent+microsphere+immunoassay+for+antibodies+to+pneumococcal+capsular+polysaccharides.">A multiplexed fluorescent microsphere immunoassay for antibodies to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides.</a> American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 117 (4), 589-596 (2002).</li><li>Ayouba, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+sensitive+and+specific+serological+assay+based+on+Luminex+technology+for+detection+of+antibodies+to+Zaire+Ebola+virus.">Development of a sensitive and specific serological assay based on Luminex technology for detection of antibodies to Zaire Ebola virus.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 55 (1), 165-176 (2017).</li><li>Hornbeck, P., Fleisher, T. A., Papadopoulos, N. M., Vastl, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isotype+determination+of+antibodies.">Isotype determination of antibodies.</a> Current Protocols in Immunology. 116, 1-7 (2017).</li><li>. Multiplex Bead Mixes Made Easy with an Excel-Based Bead Calculator Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.luminexcorp.com/blog/mmultiplex-bead-mixes-made-easy-with-an-excel-based-bead-calculator/">https://www.luminexcorp.com/blog/mmultiplex-bead-mixes-made-easy-with-an-excel-based-bead-calculator/</a> (2020)</li><li>EUA Authorized Serology Test Performance. FDA Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/eus-authorized-serology-test-performance">https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/eus-authorized-serology-test-performance</a> (2020)</li><li>Indirect ELISA protocol. Abcam Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.abcam.com/ps/pdf/protocols/Indirect%20ELISA%20protocol.pdf">https://www.abcam.com/ps/pdf/protocols/Indirect%20ELISA%20protocol.pdf</a> (2021)</li><li>Baker, H. N., Murphy, R., Lopez, E., Garcia, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conversion+of+a+capture+ELISA+to+a+Luminex+xMAP+assay+using+a+multiplex+antibody+screening+method.">Conversion of a capture ELISA to a Luminex xMAP assay using a multiplex antibody screening method.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (65), e4084 (2012).</li><li>Pickering, J. W., Martins, T. B., Schroder, M. C., Hill, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+a+multiplex+flow+cytometric+assay+with+enzyme-linked+immunosorbent+assay+for+auantitation+of+antibodies+to+tetanus,+diphtheria,+and+Haemophilus+influenzae+Type+b.">Comparison of a multiplex flow cytometric assay with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for auantitation of antibodies to tetanus, diphtheria, and Haemophilus influenzae Type b.</a> Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 9 (4), 872-876 (2002).</li></ol>

Stephen Angeloni and Sherry Dunbar are employees of Luminex Corporation that produces some of the reagents and instruments that were used in this study.&#160;Open Access publication of this article was sponsored by Luminex Corporation

This study expanded the functionality of a multiplex fluorescent microsphere assay, 3Flex, that qualitatively assesses the IgG response to infection by SARS-CoV-21. While many serological assays for COVID-19 detect a single antigen, this assay simultaneously evaluates S, RBD, and Nc antigens, and includes an internal antibody isotype control7. In addition, ACE2 is used as an indicator to detect neutralizing antibody titers to SARS-CoV-2.
Multi-antigen assays may be particularly useful in the future for discriminating immune responses between infected and vaccinated persons. With SARS-CoV-2, if only S and RBD antibodies are evaluated, it would be impossible to discern whether this was due to a past infection or to a vaccination antibody response. None of the vaccines that are currently in use target the Nc antigen, so by evaluating S/RBD and Nc antigens, it is possible to distinguish past viral infection (Nc- and S/RBD-positive) from a vaccination response (S/RBD-positive only; Nc-negative).
In the current study, the 3Flex serological and neutralization assays (sections 5 and 6) were transferred onto a new dual reporter flow analysis instrument (sections 7 and 8). Typical immunoassay protocols for bead-based multiplex assays are similar to standard ELISA protocols, following comparable steps for sample incubation, detection antibody/reporter incubation, and analysis of results8. Previous studies have also demonstrated how standard ELISA assays can be transferred to a bead-based multiplexing platform9.
The assay protocols could be seamlessly transferred from the predecessor single reporter instrument to the new dual reporter system, as shown by the results obtained for the test samples and controls (Figure 4 and Figure 5). In the serological assay, all positive serum samples demonstrated a characteristic dose-responsive decrease in signal corresponding to both a higher sample dilution and a lower detection antibody concentration, whereas the signals for the negative samples remained at background levels. Similarly, for the neutralization assay, decreasing signals for S and RBD, but not Nc, corresponded to increasing concentrations of the ACE2 competitor, whereas the IgG stripped serum was much less affected by the addition of ACE2. Pre-incubating the beads with ACE2 for 2 min prior to addition of the serum sample (as described in sections 6 and 8), was also compared to combining the beads with ACE2 and serum at the same time and produced little difference in the results (data not shown). However, because the results obtained with the beads plus ACE2 pre-incubation step were more consistent, it was the final procedure adopted for the neutralization assay protocol (sections 6 and 8).
Because the dual reporter system incorporates a second fluorescent reporter channel, both assays were converted into isotyping assays to simultaneously measure both IgG and IgM responses. The dual reporter functionality of the flow analyzer allows collection of fluorescent signals from two reporter detection reagents for each analyte in the multiplex for each sample, effectively doubling the data generated per sample in an assay. For development and optimization of the dual reporter assay protocols, several commercially available reporter dyes and detection antibodies were evaluated for the new RP2 channel (Figure 7 and Figure 8) to determine the best option(s) available. The anti-IgM antibody conjugated with the DL 405 reporter dye did not perform well in the RP2 channel (Figure 7), so biotin anti-IgG with SASB was subsequently evaluated for detection in the RP2 channel (Figure 8). Three combinations of RP1 and RP2 detection reagents were compared in the dual reporter neutralization assay (Table 1 and Figure 9) to determine the best performing combinations for simultaneous detection of IgG and IgM neutralizing antibodies. While there were significant differences in the signal intensity between the RP1 channel using PE-anti IgM and the RP2 channel using DL 549 anti-IgM, there was no significant difference in the measurement of the percent binding inhibition by ACE2.
Several limitations to the current method and this study are acknowledged. First, the samples tested and used in the method development and optimization were limited to sets of 8-11 samples. More samples will be tested in expanded studies to verify the method is fully optimized. Second, a limited number of reporter fluorophores and reporter pairs were tested. Further testing of all available reporters in all possible combinations will determine which reagents can be used successfully in this method. The anti-IgG antibody conjugated to biotin was different than the anti-IgG antibody conjugated to the BV 421 reporter. So, although variability in the signal intensity for the BV 421 anti-IgG existed, it could be due to the specificity of the antibody and not related to the reporter dye. Testing other available BV 421-conjugated antibodies may identify another antibody that would perform well in the RP2 channel. Future studies will also evaluate the combination of PE anti-IgM with BV 421 anti-human IgG for detection in RP1 and RP2, respectively. Last, even with the dual reporter capability of the instrument, assays are limited to two isotypes (two parameters) per reaction. If additional isotypes are to be measured or full isotyping is desired, then additional reactions using the same two reporter channels would need to be run in separate wells.
Bead-based multiplexing technology allows for rapid and flexible assay design with easy implementation into routine laboratory workflows3,4,10. This study demonstrated the ease in transferring the previously described 3Flex serological and neutralization assays for SARS-CoV-2 onto a flow analysis system for measuring IgG with a single reporter, or with slight modification, simultaneously measuring both IgG and IgM responses using two reporters. The dual reporter option has clear advantages over single reporter platforms because it can provide twice as much data per sample, using half the sample volume, and in half the number of reaction wells. With the appropriate reporter dyes and detection antibodies, isotyping assays can be easily developed and performed on the dual reporter flow analysis instrument.

The COVID-19 pandemic has emphasized the importance of being able to rapidly develop and implement fast, high-throughput, high-performing serological tests that can be used for diagnosis and surveillance of novel pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2. Multiplex serological testing can be extremely useful in a pandemic, as it can simultaneously analyze antibodies to multiple antigens, which provides for broad pathogen coverage and controls for variability in the organism and the host response to infection. The development of a multiplex fluorescent bead-based assay, the SARS-CoV-2 IgG 3Flex (3Flex), that can detect antibodies to the spike (S) protein, the spike angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptor-binding domain (RBD), and nucleocapsid (Nc) of SARS-CoV-2 was recently reported1. 3Flex was shown to have comparable performance to a reference SARS-CoV-2 IgG assay for serum obtained at &#8805;21 days from symptom onset but had higher sensitivity with samples collected at &#8804;5 days from symptom onset. Additionally, inhibition of antibody binding was demonstrated for S and RBD antigens using soluble ACE2 in a neutralization assay format. Multiplex bead-based technology has been widely adopted as a proven technology for multiplex serological testing and has distinct advantages for large-scale screening, including short time-to-results, small sample requirements, and reduced labor2,3,4.
Recently, a new flow analysis instrument has become available that provides the same high-plex, high-throughput capability of the system demonstrated in previous work1, but with the added benefit of two reporter channels. The ability to measure two fluorescent reporter signals in a single reaction allows the assessment of two results per analyte for each sample and is ideal for isotyping applications, which typically must be performed in separate reaction wells5. The dual reporter capability provides twice the data for each sample in half as many reaction wells with half the sample volume requirements, and thus has a clear advantage over single reporter systems. This study details the standard serological assay protocol and describes the adaptation to a neutralization assay. Additionally, this report describes the conversion of the single reporter assay to a dual reporter serological assay, and subsequently, a dual reporter neutralization assay, to simultaneously measure neutralizing antibodies of both IgG and IgM isotypes against the SARS-CoV-2 S, RBD, and Nc antigens. A visual overview of the assay protocol is provided in Figure 1.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>ACE2 (human) (rec.)</td>
			<td>AdipoGen Life Sciences</td>
			<td>AG-40B-0192-3050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-SP (long spacer) AffiniPure Goat Anti-Human IgG, Fc&#947; fragment specific</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>109-065-098</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>A7888</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Branson 1800 Cleaner/water bath sonicator</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brilliant Violet 421 AffiniPure Donkey Anti-Human IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>709-675-149</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning 96-well Black Flat Bottom Polystyrene NBS Microplate</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning 96-well Microplate Aluminum Sealing Tape, Nonsterile</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>6570</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DyLight 405 AffiniPure Goat Anti-Human IgM, Fc5&#956;&#160;fragment specific</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>109-475-043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DyLight 549 AffiniPure F(ab&#39;)2 Goat Anti-Human IgM Fc5&#956; specific</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>109-506-129</td>
			<td>Discontinued but available from multiple vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>eBioscience Streptavidin Super Bright 436 Conjugate</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>62-4317-82</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand Incubating Microplate Shaker</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>02-217-757</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L) Cross-Adsorbed Secondary Antibody, PE</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P-2771MP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminex Magnetic Plate Separator</td>
			<td>Luminex Corporation</td>
			<td>CN-0269-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MagPlex beads</td>
			<td>Luminex Corporation</td>
			<td>MC100XX-ID</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PE AffiniPure F(ab&#39;)2 Goat Anti-Human IgM Fc5&#956; specific</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories</td>
			<td>109-116-129</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P3813</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SARS Nucleocapsid Protein Antibody</td>
			<td>Novos Biologicals</td>
			<td>NB100-56683</td>
			<td>Unconjugated, rabbit, polyclonal, Protein G purified</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SARS Nucleocapsid Protein Antibody</td>
			<td>Novos Biologicals</td>
			<td>NB100-56049</td>
			<td>Unconjugated, rabbit, polyclonal, Protein A purified</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SARS Spike Protein Antibody</td>
			<td>Novos Biologicals</td>
			<td>NB100-56047</td>
			<td>Unconjugated, rabbit, polyclonal, Protein G purified</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SARS Spike Protein Antibody</td>
			<td>Novos Biologicals</td>
			<td>NB100-56048</td>
			<td>Unconjugated, rabbit, polyclonal, Protein G purified</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV) Spike S1 Antibody, Rabbit MAb</td>
			<td>SinoBiological</td>
			<td>40150-R007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Azide</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin, R-Phycoerythrin Conjugate (SAPE)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S21388</td>
			<td>premium grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tube Revolver/ Rotator</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>88881001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TWEEN 20</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>P9416</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xMAP Antibody Couplng Kit</td>
			<td>Luminex Corporation</td>
			<td>40-50016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xMAP INTELLIFLEX DR-SE</td>
			<td>Luminex Corporation</td>
			<td>INTELLIFLEX-DRSE-RUO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a rapid, multiplex dual reporter igg and igm sars-cov-2 neutralization assay for a multiplexed bead-based flow analysis system

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the need for rapid high-throughput methods for sensitive and specific serological detection of infection with novel pathogens, such as SARS-CoV-2. Multiplex serological testing can be particularly useful because it can simultaneously analyze antibodies to multiple antigens that optimizes pathogen coverage, and controls for variability in the organism and the individual host response. Here we describe a SARS-CoV-2 IgG 3-plex fluorescent microsphere-based assay that can detect both IgM and IgG antibodies to three major SARS-CoV-2 antigens-the spike (S) protein, spike angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptor-binding domain (RBD), and nucleocapsid (Nc). The assay was shown to have comparable performance to a SARS-CoV-2 reference assay for IgG in serum obtained at &#8805;21 days from symptom onset but had higher sensitivity with samples collected at &#8804;5 days from symptom onset. Further, using soluble ACE2 in a neutralization assay format, inhibition of antibody binding was demonstrated for S and RBD.

Optimization of the Single Reporter Serological Assay. 
The coupling strategy for all SARS-CoV-2 antigens is described in Cameron, et al., 20201 and in step 2.1 above. The strategy for coupling confirmation is described in step 2.3 above. For an efficient coupling, the median fluorescence intensity (MFI) values should be significantly higher than the no serum/no antibody negative control reaction(s) and should demonstrate a dose response of decreasing MFI signal with decreasing amounts of detection reagent. MFIs of approximately 1,000 MFI units or greater over background MFI generally indicate efficient protein coupling and are dependent on the concentration and specificity of the detection reagent used. Using this method, confirmation of S, RBD, and Nc antigen coupling were tested for two lots of beads (Figure 2). The MFI signals for all antigens were significantly higher than the background MFI and showed a dose response with titration of the detection reagents. The data also showed good reproducibility of MFI levels between the two different lots of coupled beads.
Optimization of the single reporter assay was done as described in Cameron, et al., 20201. Each antigen was tested at different coupling concentrations with different dilutions of several serum samples representing high, medium, low, and negative samples. In addition, because the assay measures IgG titers, an IgG-stripped serum was used as an additional negative sample. Results of a representative sample dilution series with different antigen coupling levels are shown in Figure 3. This initial dilution series was tested with a fixed concentration of detection reagents to get a potential range of representative antigen-specific and background MFI levels. From these data, additional sample dilution ranges and antigen coupling levels were determined and tested further with additional samples (data not shown).
Next, the concentration of the detection reagent was optimized for use with the different serum dilutions and antigen coupling levels. Representative data using 6 positive and 2 negative samples are shown in Figure 4. Following additional testing with several hundred negative pre-COVID-19 serum samples, the final optimal antigen coupling levels and detection regent concentrations were selected for the final assay protocol, as described in section 5.
Conversion to a single reporter neutralization assay 
Conversion of the single reporter serological assay to a neutralization assay was achieved by adding an incubation step using ACE2 (as a competing reagent) with the beads prior to adding the serum sample. By titrating the amount of ACE2 added, inhibition of IgG binding to the S and RBD antigens was observed, as shown in Figure 5. While the 11 patient sera had different titers of IgG, each showed a significant decrease in MFI signal with increasing ACE2 concentration. As expected, ACE2 only impacts the MFI signals of S and RBD, but not the Nc antigen.
The percent residual MFI signal relative to 0 &#181;g/mL ACE2 for all samples is shown in Figure 6. For most samples, a signal loss &#62;30% was observed for S and RBD with increasing ACE2 concentration. As expected, there was no effect of ACE2 on the Nc signal.
Conversion to a dual reporter IgG and IgM serological assay 
For the dual reporter IgG and IgM assay, the standard single reporter assay conditions were used to test different antibody and reporter combinations for the two reporter channels. The RP1 channel is similar to previous flow analysis instruments with detection of &#34;orange&#34; fluorescence for reporter dyes such as PE. The second channel, RP2, employs a violet excitation laser that can be used for detecting the &#34;blue&#34; fluorescence of dyes excited at 402 nm with emission spectra peaks in the 421-441 nm range.
Several different anti-human IgG and IgM antibody combinations were tested at various concentrations with the standard 2,000-fold sample dilution and incubation conditions detailed in section 6. An initial test of anti-IgM conjugated to the DyLight 405 reporter dye (DL 405; excitation at 400 nm and emission at 420 nm) for the RP2 channel was performed using a set of 11 PCR-positive samples with DFSO ranging from 5 to &#62;60 days, and an IgG-stripped serum sample. This detection reagent did not produce a high signal in the RP2 channel as shown in Figure 7A,B,C. For samples with the high IgM RP2 MFI, the highest signals were seen for RBD and Nc (Figure 7B,C). While IgM titers should be elevated at this time in some samples, the observed MFI levels did not exceed 140 MFI units with the IgM detection reagent. Furthermore, the control bead for IgM lacked a significant dynamic range for MFI when using DL 405 conjugated to anti-IgM compared to a PE-labeled anti-IgM RP1 reporter used at the same concentrations (Figure 7D).
Because a suitable RP2 reporter-labeled detection reagent for IgM was not available, the original biotin anti-IgG with SASB was tested for use in the RP2 channel. The signal for IgG in the RP2 channel with SASB did not have the same dynamic range as with SAPE, but it still had a suitable range for measuring IgG titers for S, RBD, and Nc (Figure 8). These data led to testing different RP1 IgM and RP2 IgG detection reagent combinations, as described below.
Conversion to dual reporter neutralization assay 
The dual reporter serological assay was converted to a neutralization assay by adding an incubation step with ACE2 and beads, prior to adding the serum sample. A 2-fold dilution series of ACE2 starting at 16 &#181;g/ml was used, and then tested with sets of 11 samples and stripped sera as described above. In addition, 3 different combinations of RP1 IgM and RP2 IgG detection antibody mixes were tested on a set of 11 samples and stripped serum controls. The final combinations and reagent concentrations determined to be optimal are detailed in Table 1.
For IgG detection, the biotin anti-human IgG/SASB used in the original single reporter assay was tested along with another anti-IgG conjugated to the BV reporter dye. While the BV conjugate had high RP2 MFI signals, the MFI signal intensity for IgG titer varied across the ACE2 titrations (Figure 9A,C,E). The biotin anti-human IgG/SASB combination had more consistent MFI signal decrease across the ACE2 titration compared to the BV conjugate, demonstrating a dose response, although the MFI levels were lower. The signal fluctuation by the BV conjugate across ACE2 concentrations also interfered with determining the percent inhibition by ACE2 across the range of IgG titers compared to the biotin anti-human IgG/SASB combination (Figure 9B,D,F). Samples with low MFI signals, such as the DFSO 3 sample, do not have high enough titers to evaluate the performance of these reagents or measure IgG neutralizing capacity.
For determining IgM titers in the RP1 channel, a PE-conjugated anti-IgM was compared to an anti-human IgM conjugated to the DyLight 549 reporter dye (DL 549; excitation at 562 nm and emission at 576 nm) at the concentrations listed in Table 1. Of these two reagents, the PE anti-IgM displayed higher MFIs than those generated by DL 549 anti-human IgM for the samples tested (Figure 9A,C,E). The IgM control bead measuring the addition of these reagents had different average MFIs of &#8776;17,000 for the PE anti-IgM and 2,723 for the DL 549 conjugate. Even with these differences, the impact of the various ACE2 concentrations on MFI was measurable with the DL 549 conjugate. For determining ACE2 percent inhibition of IgM binding, there was a slight but insignificant difference between the two IgM detection reagents (Figure 9B,D,F).
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Combination</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Reporter</td>
			<td colspan="2">Final Concentration In Well (&#181;g/mL)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RP1</td>
			<td>RP2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="3">1</td>
			<td>PE anti-IgM</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-Ig</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>0.62</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SASB</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">2</td>
			<td>DyLight 549 Anti-Human IgM</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brilliant Violet 421 Anti-Human IgG</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="3">3</td>
			<td>DyLight 549 Anti-Human IgM</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-Ig</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>0.62</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SASB</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: List of RP1 and RP2 reporter dye combinations tested. Several different RP1 and RP2 reporter dyes were evaluated for measuring IgG and IgM titers. The three combinations shown above were tested at different RP1 detection modes and for optimization of the neutralization assay. For RP2 combinations using SASB, concentrations for the biotinylated detection antibody and SASB are shown. *Final Concentration represents the final concentration in the reaction well.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Flowchart highlighting main assay protocol steps. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Confirmation of antigen coupling. Antigens were coupled at 100, 10 and 1 pmol/106 beads. For S and RBD antigens, rabbit anti-S sera was used and detected with PE anti-rabbit IgG. For Nc, a Protein G-purified rabbit polyclonal anti-Nc was used. The titration curves for beads coupled with 10 pmol S (A), 100 pmol RBD&#160;(B), and 100 pmol Nc (C) are shown. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Optimization of serum dilution with different antigen coupling levels. Serum samples representing high, medium, low, and negative samples were tested with the different pmol antigen/106 bead couplings. A 4-fold serum titration was tested with a multiplex mix of antigen-coupled beads using the assay protocol described in section 5. The MFI values of the titration curves for S (A), RBD (B), and Nc (C) are shown. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Determination of optimal serum dilution and detection reagent concentration. Eight serum samples, including negative patients (2 samples) and low- to high-positive (6 samples), were tested at additional serum dilutions with three different detection reagent concentrations. The MFI results are shown for S (A), RBD (B), and Nc (C). Based on these and other data (not shown), a sample dilution of 1:2,000 and a biotin detection antibody concentration of 0.62 &#181;g/mL was selected. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Optimization of single reporter neutralization assay. Modification of the single reporter serological assay to a neutralizing antibody detection assay was performed by adding an incubation step with ACE2 as a competitor, as described in Section 6. A set of 11 samples, ranging from low- to high-positive titer sera, and an IgG-striped serum sample were tested with a two-fold dilution series of ACE2 starting at 4 &#181;g/mL, using standard assay conditions. Across this range of ACE2 concentrations, a decrease in MFI can be seen with increased ACE2 for S (A) and RBD (B), but not for Nc (C). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Percent inhibition of signal with ACE2. The percent residual signals for the set of 11 samples (from Figure 4) are shown. For each sample, regardless of its IgG titer, a maximum decrease of &#8805;30% MFI signal was achieved for S (A) and RBD (B) at the highest ACE2 concentration. For the Nc antigen (C) there was no significant inhibition of signal with any amount of ACE2 tested. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig07.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Test of DyLight 405 anti-IgM as RP2 IgM detection reagent. A set of 11 samples and IgG-stripped sera were used to test DL 405-conjugated anti-IgM as an RP2 detection reagent. The RP2 IgM MFI signals for S (A), RBD (B), and Nc (C) are shown. The highest MFI signal for any antigen with any sample was approximately 140 MFI units for RBD with sample H (B). Even the signal on the IgM control bead set was less than 1,000 MFI in the RP2 channel across the whole antibody titer range and did not show the increased dynamic range observed with the PE anti-IgM detection antibody in the RP1 channel (D). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig07large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig08.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: Optimization of SASB as RP2 reporter with Biotin anti-IgG. A set of 11 samples and IgG-stripped sera were used to test a dilution series of SASB with the standard 0.62 &#181;g/mL biotin anti-IgG. The resulting IgG MFIs in the RP2 channel for S (A), RBD (B), and Nc (C) are shown. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig08large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 9" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig09.jpg" /> 
Figure 9: Comparison of three different combinations of RP1 IgM and RP1 IgG detection mixes. Three different detection antibody mixes were tested on 11 samples and IgG stripped sera. The combinations and final concentrations used are described in Table 1. All samples were tested with a 2-fold ACE2 dilutions, starting at 16 &#181;g/mL. Data for samples at DFSO of 3, 12, and 30 days are shown. The MFI signals for RP1 IgM (orange) and RP2 IgG (blue) are shown in A (DFSO 3), C (DFSO 12), and E (DFSO 30). The ACE2 percent residual MFIs are shown in B (DFSO 3), D (DFSO 12), and F (DFSO 30). Signals representing a &#62;30% decrease as compared to No ACE2 controls are highlighted light green.&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62487/62487fig09large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Rapid, Multiplex Dual Reporter IgG and IgM SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Assay for a Multiplexed Bead-Based Flow Analysis System at JoVE.com

A Rapid, Multiplex Dual Reporter IgG and IgM SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Assay for a Multiplexed Bead-Based Flow Analysis System

A flow analysis system for bead-based multiplexed assays which provides a two-reporter readout was used for the development of multiplex serological and antibody neutralization assays that can simultaneously measure neutralizing IgG and IgM antibodies for SARS-CoV-2.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the need for rapid high-throughput methods for sensitive and specific serological detection of infection with novel ...

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JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

4.8K Views.  Luminex Corporation. A flow analysis system for bead-based multiplexed assays which provides a two-reporter readout was used for the development of multiplex serological and antibody neutralization assays that can simultaneously measure neutralizing IgG and IgM antibodies for SARS-CoV-2.

Video: A Rapid, Multiplex Dual Reporter IgG and IgM SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Assay for a Multiplexed Bead-Based Flow Analysis System

Bead Based Multiplex Assay for Analysis of Tear Cytokine Profiles

Tear film is a complex mixture of lipids, proteins and minerals which covers the external surface of the eye, thereby providing lubrication, nutrition and protection to the underlying cells. Analysis of tears is an emerging area for the identification of biomarkers for the prediction, diagnosis, and prognosis of various ocular diseases. Tears are easily accessible and their collection is non-invasive. Therefore, advancing technologies are gaining prominence for identification of multiple analytes in tears to study changes in protein or metabolite composition and its association with pathological conditions. Tear cytokines are ideal biomarkers for studying the health of the ocular surface and also help in understanding the mechanisms of different ocular surface disorders like dry eye disease and vernal conjunctivitis. Bead based multiplex assays have the capability of detecting multiple analytes in a small amount of sample with a higher sensitivity. Here we describe a standardized protocol of tear sample collection, extraction and analysis of cytokine profiling using a bead based multiplex assay.

Analysis of tear film cytokines helps in studying various ocular diseases. Bead based multiplex assays are simple and sensitive and enable the testing of multiple targets in samples with small volumes. Here we describe a protocol for tear film cytokine profiling a using bead based multiplex assay.

Tear film is a complex mixture of lipids, proteins and minerals which covers the external surface of the eye, thereby providing lubrication, nutrition and ...

Visualization of SARS-CoV-2 using Immuno RNA-Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization

This manuscript provides a protocol for in situ hybridization chain reaction (HCR) coupled with immunofluorescence to visualize severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA in cell line&#160;and three-dimensional (3D) cultures of human airway epithelium. The method allows highly specific and sensitive visualization of viral RNA by relying on HCR initiated by probe localization. Split-initiator probes help amplify the signal by fluorescently labeled amplifiers, resulting in negligible background fluorescence in confocal microscopy. Labeling amplifiers with different fluorescent dyes facilitates the simultaneous recognition of various targets. This, in turn, allows the mapping of the infection in tissues to better understand viral pathogenesis and replication at the single-cell level. Coupling this method with immunofluorescence may facilitate better understanding of host-virus interactions, including alternation of the host epigenome and immune response pathways. Owing to sensitive and specific HCR technology, this protocol can also be used as a diagnostic tool. It is also important to remember that the technique may be modified easily to enable detection of any RNA, including non-coding RNAs and RNA viruses that may emerge in the future.

Here, we describe a simple method that combines RNA fluorescence in situ&#160;hybridization (RNA-FISH) with immunofluorescence to visualize severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA. This protocol may increase understanding of the molecular characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 RNA-host interactions at a single-cell level.

This manuscript provides a protocol for in situ hybridization chain reaction (HCR) coupled with immunofluorescence to visualize severe acute respiratory ...

Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor-Binding Domain Antibody using a HiBiT-Based Bioreporter

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the need for better serological detection methods to determine the epidemiologic impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The increasing number of SARS-CoV-2 infections raises the need for better antibody detection assays. Current antibody detection methods compromise sensitivity for speed or are sensitive but time-consuming. A large proportion of SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing antibodies target the receptor-binding domain (RBD), one of the primary immunogenic compartments of SARS-CoV-2. We have recently designed and developed a highly sensitive, bioluminescent-tagged RBD (NanoLuc HiBiT-RBD) to detect SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. The following text describes the procedure to produce the HiBiT-RBD complex and a fast assay to evaluate the presence of RBD-targeting antibodies using this tool. Due to the durability of the HiBiT-RBD protein product over a wide range of temperatures and the shorter experimental procedure that can be completed within 1 h, the protocol can be considered as a more efficient alternative to detect SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in patient serum samples.

The outlined protocol describes the procedure for producing the HiBiT-receptor-binding domain protein complex and its application for fast and sensitive detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the need for better serological detection methods to determine the epidemiologic impact of severe ...

Live Imaging and Quantification of Viral Infection in K18 hACE2 Transgenic Mice Using Reporter-Expressing Recombinant SARS-CoV-2

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). To date, SARS-CoV-2 has been responsible for over 242 million infections and more than 4.9 million deaths worldwide. Similar to other viruses, studying SARS-CoV-2 requires the use of experimental methods to detect the presence of virus in infected cells and/or in animal models. To overcome this limitation, we generated replication-competent recombinant (r)SARS-CoV-2 that expresses bioluminescent (nanoluciferase, Nluc) or fluorescent (Venus) proteins. These reporter-expressing rSARS-CoV-2 allow tracking viral infections in vitro and in vivo based on the expression of Nluc and Venus reporter genes. Here the study describes the use of rSARS-CoV-2/Nluc and rSARS-CoV-2/Venus to detect and track SARS-CoV-2 infection in the previously described K18 human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) transgenic mouse model of infection using in vivo imaging systems (IVIS). This rSARS-CoV-2/Nluc and rSARS-CoV-2/Venus show rSARS-CoV-2/WT-like pathogenicity and viral replication in vivo. Importantly, Nluc and Venus expression allow us to directly track viral infections in vivo and ex vivo, in infected mice. These rSARS-CoV-2/Nluc and rSARS-CoV-2/Venus represent an excellent option to study the biology of SARS-CoV-2 in vivo, to understand viral infection and associated COVID-19 disease, and to identify effective prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatments to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

This protocol describes the dynamics of viral infections using luciferase- and fluorescence-expressing recombinant (r)SARS-CoV-2 and an in vivo imaging systems (IVIS) in K18 hACE2 transgenic mice to overcome the need of secondary approaches required to study SARS-CoV-2 infections in vivo.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). To date, SARS-CoV-2 has ...

Efficient SARS-CoV-2 Quantitative Reverse Transcriptase PCR Saliva Diagnostic Strategy utilizing Open-Source Pipetting Robots

The emergence of the recent SARS-CoV-2 global health crisis introduced key challenges for epidemiological research and clinical testing. Characterized by a high rate of transmission and low mortality, the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated accurate and efficient diagnostic testing, particularly in closed populations such as residential universities. Initial availability of nucleic acid testing, like nasopharyngeal swabs, was limited due to supply chain pressure which also delayed reporting of test results. Saliva-based reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) testing has shown to be comparable in sensitivity and specificity to other testing methods, and saliva collection is less physically invasive to participants. Consequently, we developed a multiplex RT-qPCR diagnostic assay for population surveillance of Clemson University and the surrounding community. The assay utilized open-source liquid handling robots and thermocyclers instead of complex clinical automation systems to optimize workflow and system flexibility. Automation of saliva-based RT-qPCR enables rapid and accurate detection of a wide range of viral RNA concentrations for both large- and small-scale testing demands. The average turnaround for the automated system was &#60; 9 h for 95% of samples and &#60; 24 h for 99% of samples. The cost for a single test was $2.80 when all reagents were purchased in bulk quantities.

The protocol describes a SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic method that utilizes open-source automation to perform RT-qPCR molecular testing of saliva samples. This scalable approach can be applied to clinical public health surveillance as well as to increase the capacity of smaller university laboratories.

The emergence of the recent SARS-CoV-2 global health crisis introduced key challenges for epidemiological research and clinical testing. Characterized by ...

Multiplex Immunoassay for Borrelia-Specific IgG and IgM in Serum

Simultaneous Detection of Different Antibody Classes in a Multiplexed Serological Test

To monitor the progression of infectious diseases, it is useful to assess immunoreactivity against various antigenic determinants, and measure different antibody isotypes because they appear at different stages of the host immune response. With Lyme borreliosis, the pathogenic agent can be one of the multiple members of the Borrelia species. Therefore, correct sample classification requires evaluating the immunoreactivity against different antigens of different Borrelia species. Additionally, anti-pathogen IgG and IgM responses can have different elicitation time courses during disease progression. Here we demonstrate the development of a two-reporter multiplex immunoassay that has utility in identifying Borrelia-specific immune response in human serum samples by simultaneously evaluating both IgG and IgM immunoreactivity against different bacterial antigens in the same reaction well. This dual-reporter approach retains the analytical performance of single-reporter methods while conserving time and resources and reducing sample size requirements. This assay allows essentially double the serological information to be generated from a blood sample in half the time.

Author Spotlight: Expanding the Scope of Multiplex Immunoassays for Lyme Borreliosis Diagnostics and Pathogen Research 

A three-channel dual-reporter fluorescence flow analysis system was used to develop a bead-based multiplex immunoassay that simultaneously evaluates serum samples for IgG and IgM elicited against multiple antigens of different Borrelia species that cause Lyme borreliosis in Europe and North America.

To monitor the progression of infectious diseases, it is useful to assess immunoreactivity against various antigenic determinants, and measure different ...

Quantifying Vaccine-Induced Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Variants

Application of Ha-CoV-2 Pseudovirus for Rapid Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Neutralizing Antibodies

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic (COVID-19) has highlighted the need for rapid assays to accurately measure the infectivity of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants and the effectiveness of vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies against viral variants. These assays are essential for pandemic surveillance and validating vaccines and variant-specific boosters. This manuscript demonstrates the application of a novel hybrid alphavirus-SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus (Ha-CoV-2) for quick quantification of SARS-CoV-2 variant infectivity and vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies to viral variants. Ha-CoV-2 is a SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particle consisting of viral structural proteins (S, M, N, and E) and a fast-expressing RNA genome derived from an alphavirus, Semliki Forest Virus (SFV). Ha-CoV-2 also contains both green fluorescent protein (GFP) and luciferase reporter genes that allow for quick quantification of viral infectivity. As an example, the infectivity of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) and the Omicron (B.1.1.529) variants are quantified, and their sensitivities to a neutralizing antibody (27VB) are also measured. These examples demonstrate the great potential of Ha-CoV-2 as a robust platform for rapid quantification of SARS-CoV-2 variants and their susceptibility to neutralizing antibodies.

Author Spotlight: A Pseudotype Virus System for Assessing Omicron Subvariants and Neutralizing Antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 Research

This protocol describes the application of a novel hybrid alphavirus-SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus (Ha-CoV-2) as a platform for rapid quantification of infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 variants and their sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic (COVID-19) has highlighted the need for rapid assays to accurately measure the infectivity of emerging SARS-CoV-2 ...

Assessing Serum Neutralization Against SARS-CoV-2 with Pseudotyped Viruses

Pseudotyped Viruses As a Molecular Tool to Monitor Humoral Immune Responses Against SARS-CoV-2 Via Neutralization Assay

Pseudotyped viruses (PVs) are molecular tools that can be used to study host-virus interactions and to test the neutralizing ability of serum samples, in addition to their better-known use in gene therapy for the delivery of a gene of interest. PVs are replication defective because the viral genome is divided into different plasmids that are not incorporated into the PVs. This safe and versatile system allows the use of PVs in biosafety level 2 laboratories. Here, we present a general methodology to produce lentiviral PVs based on three plasmids as mentioned here: (1) the backbone plasmid carrying the reporter gene needed to monitor the infection; (2) the packaging plasmid carrying the genes for all the structural proteins needed to generate the PVs; (3) the envelope surface glycoprotein expression plasmid that determines virus tropism and mediates viral entry into the host cell. In this work, SARS-CoV-2 Spike is the envelope glycoprotein used for the production of non-replicative SARS-CoV-2 pseudotyped lentiviruses.
Briefly, packaging cells (HEK293T) were co-transfected with the three different plasmids using standard methods. After 48 h, the supernatant containing the PVs was harvested, filtered, and stored at -80 &#176;C. The infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 PVs was tested by studying the expression of the reporter gene (luciferase) in a target cell line 48 h after infection. The higher the value for relative luminescence units (RLUs), the higher the infection/transduction rate. Furthermore, the infectious PVs were added to the serially diluted serum samples to study the neutralization process of pseudoviruses' entry into target cells, measured as the reduction in RLU intensity: lower values corresponding to high neutralizing activity.

Author Spotlight: Studying Host-Virus Interactions with Pseudotyped Viruses 

Pseudotyped viruses (PVs) are replication-defective virions that are used to study host-virus interactions under safer conditions than handling authentic viruses. Presented here is a detailed protocol that shows how SARS-CoV-2 PVs can be used to test the neutralizing ability of patients' serum after COVID-19 vaccination.

Pseudotyped viruses (PVs) are molecular tools that can be used to study host-virus interactions and to test the neutralizing ability of serum samples, in ...

Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Using Dual-Reporter and Multiplex Technology

Profiling of Surface Protein Epitopes on Viral Particles by Multiplex Dual-Reporter Strategy

Membrane proteins on enveloped viruses play an important role in many biological functions involving virus attachment to target cell receptors, fusion of viral particles to host cells, host-virus interactions, and disease pathogenesis. Furthermore, viral membrane proteins on virus particles and presented on host cell surfaces have proven to be excellent targets for antivirals and vaccines. Here, we describe a protocol to investigate surface proteins on intact severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) particles using the dual-reporter flow cytometric system. The assay exploits multiplex technology to obtain a triple detection of viral particles by three independent affinity reactions. Magnetic beads conjugated to recombinant human angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) were used to capture viral particles from the supernatant of cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. Then, two detection reagents labeled with R-phycoerythrin (PE) or Brilliant Violet 421 (BV421) were applied simultaneously. As a proof-of-concept, antibody fragments targeting different epitopes of the SARS-CoV-2 surface protein Spike (S1) were used. The detection of viral particles by three independent affinity reactions provides strong specificity and confirms the capture of intact virus particles. Dose-dependency curves of SARS-CoV-2 infected cell supernatant were generated with replicate coefficient variances (mean/SD) &#706;14%. Good assay performance in both channels confirmed that two virus surface target protein epitopes are detectable in parallel. The protocol described here could be applied for (i) high-multiplex, high-throughput profiling of surface proteins expressed on enveloped viruses; ii) detection of active intact viral particles; and (iii) assessment of specificity and affinity of antibodies and antiviral drugs for surface epitopes of viral antigens.The application can be potentially extended to any type of extracellular vesicles and bioparticles, exposing surface antigens in body fluids or other liquid matrices.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Antiviral Strategies Through Novel Immunocapture and Mass Spectrometry Techniques

Here, we describe a newly developed multiplex fluorescent immunoassay that uses a dual-reporter flow cytometric system to concurrently detect two unique spike protein epitopes on intact severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral particles that had been captured by angiotensin-converting enzyme-2-coupled magnetic microspheres.

Membrane proteins on enveloped viruses play an important role in many biological functions involving virus attachment to target cell receptors, fusion of ...

Quick and Early Detection of Rabies Antibodies to Evaluate the Immune Response in a Patient

Detection of Rabies IgG and IgM Antibodies Using the Rabies Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test

The rabies indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test was developed to detect various rabies-specific antibody isotypes in sera or cerebral spinal fluid. This test provides rapid results and can be used to detect rabies antibodies in several different scenarios. The rabies IFA test is especially useful for the quick and early detection of antibodies to evaluate the immune response in a patient who has developed rabies. Although other methods for antemortem rabies diagnosis take precedence, this test may be utilized to demonstrate recent rabies virus exposure through antibody detection. The IFA test does not provide a virus-neutralizing antibody (VNA) titer, but the pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) response can be evaluated through positive or negative antibody presence. This test can be utilized in various situations and can provide results for a number of different targets. In this study, we used several paired serum samples from individuals who received PrEP and demonstrated their rabies antibody presence over time using the IFA test.

Author Spotlight: Rabies-Specific Antibody Isotypes Detection in Sera or Cerebral Spinal Fluid Using an IFA Test 

The aim of this manuscript is to examine the use of the rabies indirect fluorescent antibody test for the detection of rabies-specific IgG and IgM antibodies.

The rabies indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test was developed to detect various rabies-specific antibody isotypes in sera or cerebral spinal fluid. ...