We thank Chris Benner for implementing the X. tropicalis genome (xenTro2, xenTro2r) into HOMER and the Gilchrist lab for discussions on post-sequencing analysis. I.P. assisted the GO term analysis. G.E.G and J.C.S. were supported by the Wellcome Trust and are now supported by the Medical Research Council (program number U117597140).

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Nosso protocolo descreve como fazer e analisar os perfis de cromatina do genoma a partir de embriões de Xenopus. Ele abrange todas as etapas a partir de proteínas de ligação cruzada para loci endógena in vivo para o processamento de milhões de lê representando locais genômicas enriquecidas em silico. Desde um número crescente de projectos de genoma estão disponíveis, este protocolo deve ser aplicável a outros modelos e não-modelo organismos. A seção experimental mais importante, o que diferencia este protocolo para além de trabalhos anteriores 8,31,33,34, é o procedimento pós-fixação para extrair núcleos cruzada. Ele facilita a solubilização cromatina eficiente e de corte e fácil upscaling. Juntamente com as eficiências melhoradas de preparação da biblioteca este protocolo permite a construção de bibliotecas de ChIP-SEQ de alta complexidade da metade a dois milhões de células que expressam o epítopo associado cromatina de interesse. Para as experiências de ChIP-qPCR, alguns dez mil destas células são normalmente suficientepara verificar se há enriquecimento DNA em talvez seis loci genômicos distintas. Estes números são estimativas conservadoras, mas podem variar dependendo do nível de expressão da proteína, a qualidade do anticorpo, eficiência, e acessibilidade epitopo de ligação cruzada. Como um guia, um único embrião de Xenopus contém cerca de 4000 células na fase mid-blástula (8.5, depois de Nieuwkoop e Faber 29), 40.000 células na fase de gástrula tardia (12) e 100.000 células na fase tailbud precoce (20). O tempo de fixação exata para immunoprecipitation eficiente precisa ser determinada empiricamente por Chip-qPCR (seção 10). Em geral, os tempos de fixação mais longos são necessários se o experimento envolve X. laevis embriões, primeiros estágios de desenvolvimento, e fracos (ou indiretas) propriedades de ligação de DNA. No entanto, não é recomendável que fixa embriões Xenopus mais de 40 min, ou o processamento de mais embriões do que o indicado (seção 3), com cromatina de corte torna-se menos eficiente. É importante nãopara usar qualquer glicina após a fixação como essa etapa comum para matar formaldeído pode fazer extração nuclear a partir de embriões de gema-rico muito difíceis. Actualmente, a razão para isto não é conhecido. É concebível que o aducto de formaldeído-glicina reage ainda com N-terminal de amino ou grupos de resíduos de arginina 35. O anticorpo é a chave para qualquer experimento chip e controles suficientes precisam ser realizados para mostrar sua especificidade para o epitopo de interesse (ver orientações por Landt et al. 36). Se nenhum anticorpo ChIP grau está disponível, a introdução das proteínas de fusão marcadas com epítopo correspondente pode ser uma alternativa legítima como estas proteínas endógenas podem ocupar locais de ligação 37. Neste caso, os embriões não injectados são melhores para utilizar como controlo negativo, em vez de um chip com soro não-específico. Esta estratégia pode também ser aplicado se a proteína de interesse é expressa em níveis baixos, resultando em fraca recuperação de enriDNA Ched. Como para fazer bibliotecas ChIP-Seq, devido à baixa quantidade de ADN a ser utilizado, é recomendável optar por procedimentos que reduzam o número de etapas de limpeza e de combinar reacções de manter qualquer perda de ADN a um mínimo. Os adaptadores e os iniciadores têm de ser compatíveis com a sequenciação múltipla e a plataforma NGS (ver Tabela específico de Materiais / Equipamento). Se utilizando Y-adaptadores (contendo braços longos de cadeia simples), é crítico para pré-amplificar a biblioteca de três a cinco rondas de PCR antes das inserções de ADN-seleccionando tamanho (ex., De 100 a 300 pb) por electroforese em gel. Extremidades de cadeia simples causar fragmentos de DNA para migrar de forma heterogênea. Ensaio executado com diversas quantidades de ADN de entrada (por exemplo, 0,1, 0,5, 1, 2, 5, 10 e 20 ng) são recomendados para determinar o número total de ciclos de PCR (inferior ou igual a 18 ciclos) necessária para fazer um tamanho -Selecionadas biblioteca de 100 a 200 ng. A redução do número de ciclos de PCR torna a sequenciação de redundant lê menos provável. Fase sólida contas de imobilização reversíveis são bons limpeza reagentes para se recuperar de forma eficiente o DNA de interesse e de forma confiável remova todas as placas livres e dímeros de ligação e reações de PCR. Em termos de número, tipo e comprimento de leituras, em torno 20-30000000 single-end lê de 36 bp é suficiente para a maioria dos experimentos chip-Seq para cobrir todo o genoma Xenopus com profundidade suficiente. As máquinas NGS mais prevalentes são rotineiramente capaz de atender a esses critérios. No entanto, ela pode ser benéfica para aumentar o número de leituras, se uma ampla distribuição de leituras é esperado, conforme observado com modificações de histonas, em vez de picos agudos. Para muitas experiências ChIP-Seq, 4-5 bibliotecas diferente indexados podem ser combinadas e sequenciadas, um fluxo de pista de células utilizando uma máquina de NGS de alto desempenho. Algumas vezes também é conveniente para aumentar o comprimento e a sequência de leitura ambas as extremidades do molde de ADN (emparelhado-final) para aumentar mappability when análise cromatina dentro de regiões genômicas repetitivas. Este protocolo foi aplicado com sucesso a uma grande variedade de características de cromatina, tais como factores de transcrição, mediadores de sinalização e histonas modificações pós-traducionais. No entanto, os embriões adquirir um crescente grau de heterogeneidade celular como elas se desenvolvem e perfis de cromatina se tornam mais difíceis de interpretar. Passos promissores têm sido feitos em Arabidopsis e Drosophila a paisagens cromatina tecidos especificamente perfil por meio da extração de tipo específico de células de núcleos 38,39. Nosso protocolo inclui uma etapa de extração nuclear, o que poderia abrir caminho para tecido-específicas ChIP-Seq em outros embriões.

The first attempts to characterize protein-DNA interactions in vivo were reported about 30 years ago in an effort to understand RNA polymerase-mediated gene transcription in bacteria and in the fruit fly1,2. Since then, the use of immunoprecipitation to enrich distinct chromatin features (ChIP) has been widely adopted to capture binding events and chromatin states with high efficiency3. Subsequently, with the emergence of powerful microarray technologies, this method led to the characterization of genome-wide chromatin landscapes4. More recently, chromatin profiling has become even more comprehensive and high-resolution, because millions of co-immunoprecipitated DNA templates can now be sequenced in parallel and mapped to the genome (ChIP-Seq)5. As increasing numbers of genome assemblies are available, ChIP-Seq is an attractive approach to learn more about the genome regulation that underlies biological processes. 
Here we provide a protocol to perform ChIP-Seq on yolk-rich embryos such as those of the frog Xenopus. Drafts of the genomes of both widely used Xenopus species&#8212;X. tropicalis and X. laevis&#8212;have now been released by the International Xenopus Genome Consortium6. The embryos of Xenopus species share many desirable features that facilitate and allow the interpretation of genome-wide chromatin studies, including the production of large numbers of high-quality embryos, the large size of the embryos themselves, and their external development. In addition, the embryos are amenable to classic and novel manipulations like cell lineage tracing, whole-mount in situ hybridisation, RNA overexpression, and TALEN/CRISPR-mediated knockout technology.
The following protocol builds on the work of Lee et al., Blythe et al. and Gentsch et al.7-9. Briefly, Xenopus embryos are formaldehyde-fixed at the developmental stage of interest to covalently bind (cross-link) proteins to their associated genomic DNA. After nuclear extraction, cross-linked chromatin is fragmented to focus subsequent sequencing on specific genomic binding or modification sites, and to minimize the contributions of flanking DNA sequences. Subsequently, the chromatin fragments are immunoprecipitated with a ChIP-grade antibody to enrich those containing the protein of interest. The co-immunoprecipitated DNA is stripped from the protein and purified before creating an indexed (paired-end) library for next-generation sequencing (NGS). At the end, simple command lines are offered for the post-sequencing analysis of ChIP-Seq data.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1/16 inch tapered microtip</td>
			<td>Qsonica</td>
			<td>4417</td>
			<td>This microtip is compatible with Sonicator 3000 from Misonix and Q500/700 from Qsonica.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8 ml glass sample vial with cap</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>224884</td>
			<td>8 ml clear glass sample vials for aqueous samples with 15-425 size phenolic rubber-lined screw caps.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adaptor</td>
			<td>IDT or Sigma</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>TruSeq universal adaptor, 
AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAG 
ATCTACACTCTTTCCCTACAC 
GACGCTCTTCCGATC*T. TruSeq indexed adaptor, 
P-GATCGGAAGAGCACACGTC 
TGAACTCCAGTCAC &#8208;NNNNNN&#8208; 
ATCTCGTATGCCGTCT TCTGCTT*G. *, phosphorothioate bondphosphate group at 5&#39; end. NNNNNN, index (see TruSeq ChIP Sample Preparation Guide for DNA sequence). Order adaptors HPLC purified. Adaptors can be prepared by combining equimolar amounts (each 100 &#181;M) of the universal and the indexed adaptor and cooling them down slowly from 95 &#176;C to room temperature. Use 1.5 pmol per ng of input DNA. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>b2g4pipe (software)</td>
			<td>Blast2GO</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.blast2go.com/data/blast2go/b2g4pipe_v2.5.zip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BLAST+ (software)</td>
			<td>Camacho et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi?PAGE_TYPE=BlastDocs&#38;DOC_TYPE=Download</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bowtie (software)</td>
			<td>Langmead et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://bowtie-bio.sourceforge.net/index.shtml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cisFinder (software)</td>
			<td>Sharov et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://lgsun.grc.nia.nih.gov/CisFinder/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chip for capillary electrophoresis</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-1504</td>
			<td>Load this chip with 1 &#181;l DNA for library quality control. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chip-based capillary electrophoresis system</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>G2940CA</td>
			<td>The Agilent 2100 BioAnalyzer is used to check the quality of ChIP-Seq libraries. Keep reagents at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChIP-Seq library preparation kit (KAPA Hyper Prep Kit)</td>
			<td>Kapa Biosystems</td>
			<td>KK8504</td>
			<td>Kit contains KAPA end repair and A-tailing enzyme mix, end Repair and A-tailing buffer, DNA ligase, ligation buffer, KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix (2X), and KAPA library amplification primer mix (10X) (see also PCR primers). Adaptors are not included. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChIP-Seq library preparation kit (alternative, ThruPLEX-FD Prep Kit)</td>
			<td>Rubicon Genomics</td>
			<td>R40048</td>
			<td>Kit uses their own stem-loop adaptors and primers. This kit eliminates intermediate purification steps and is as sensitive as the KAPA Hyper Prep Kit. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cluster3 (software)</td>
			<td>de Hoon et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://bonsai.hgc.jp/~mdehoon/software/cluster</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FastQC (software)</td>
			<td>Simon Andrews</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorometer</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>Q32866</td>
			<td>Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorometer reagents</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>Q32851</td>
			<td>The kit provides concentrated assay reagent, dilution buffer, and pre-diluted DNA standards for the Qubit fluorometer. Store DNA standards at 4 &#176;C, buffer and dye at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F8775-4X25ML</td>
			<td>Formaldehyde solution, for molecular biology, 36.5-38% in H2O, stabilised with 10-15% methanol. Store at room temperature. CAUTION: Formaldehyde is corrosive and highly toxic.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel (E-Gel EX agarose , 2%)</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>G4010</td>
			<td>Pre-cast gel with 11 wells, openable format. Leave one lane between ladder and library empty to avoid cross-contamination. Store gels at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel electrophoresis system</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>G6465</td>
			<td>E-Gel iBase and E-Gel Safe Imager combo kit for size-selecting ChIP-Seq libraries.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel extraction kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28706</td>
			<td>Store all reagents at room temperature. Use 500 &#181;l of QG buffer per 100 mg of 2% agarose gel slice to extract DNA. Use MinElute columns (from MinElute PCR purification kit) to elute DNA twice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HOMER (software)</td>
			<td>Chris Benner</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://homer.salk.edu/homer/index.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybridization oven</td>
			<td>Techne</td>
			<td>FHB1D</td>
			<td>Hybridizer HB-1D</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IGV (software)</td>
			<td>Robinson et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/home</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumina CASAVA-1.8 quality filter (software)</td>
			<td>Assaf Gordon</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://cancan.cshl.edu/labmembers/gordon/fastq_illumina_filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Java TreeView (software)</td>
			<td>Alok Saldanha</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://jtreeview.sourceforge.net</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory jack</td>
			<td>Edu-Lab</td>
			<td>CH0642</td>
			<td>This jack is used to elevate sample in sound enclosure for sonication.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ladder, 100 bp</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>N3231</td>
			<td>Keep 1x solution at room temperature. Store stock at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ladder, 1 kb</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>N3232</td>
			<td>Keep 1x solution at room temperature. Store stock at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low-retention 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM12450</td>
			<td>nonstick, RNase-free microfuge tubes, 1.5 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MACS2 (software)</td>
			<td>Tao Liu</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>https://github.com/taoliu/MACS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>11201D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with affinity purified polyclonal sheep anti-mouse IgG covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>11203D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with affinity purified polyclonal sheep anti-rabbit IgG covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>10001D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with recombinant protein A covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>10003D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with recombinant protein G covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic rack</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>12321D</td>
			<td>DynaMag-2 magnet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEME</td>
			<td>Bailey et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://meme.nbcr.net/meme/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na3VO4</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>P0758</td>
			<td>Sodium orthovanadate (100 mM) is a commonly used general inhibitor for protein phosphotyrosyl phosphatases. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaF</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>P0759</td>
			<td>Sodium fluoride (500 mM) is commonly used as general inhibitor of phosphoseryl and phosphothreonyl phosphatases. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NGS machine</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-301-1301</td>
			<td>Genome Analyzer IIx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NGS machine (high performance)</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-401-2501</td>
			<td>HiSeq</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2028</td>
			<td>Use as control for goat polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2025</td>
			<td>Use as control for mouse polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2027</td>
			<td>Use as control for rabbit polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucleic acid staining solution</td>
			<td>iNtRON</td>
			<td>21141</td>
			<td>Use RedSafe nucleic acid staining solution at 1:50,000. Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orange G</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>O3756-25G</td>
			<td>1-Phenylazo-2-naphthol-6,8-disulfonic acid disodium salt. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR primers</td>
			<td>e.g., IDT or Sigma</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Primers to enrich adaptor-ligated DNA fragments by PCR: AATGATACGGCGACCACCGA*G and CAAGCAGAAGACGGCATACGA*G, phosphorothioate bond. Primers designed by Ethan Ford. Combine primers at 5 &#181;M each. Use 5 &#181;l in a 50 &#181;l PCR reaction. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MinElute PCR purification kit&#160;</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28006</td>
			<td>for purification of ChIP-qPCR and shearing test samples. Store MinElute spin columns at 4 &#176;C, all other buffers and collection tubes at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1, pH 7.9)</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM9730</td>
			<td>Phenol:Chloroform:IAA (25:24:1) is premixed and supplied at pH 6.6. Use provided Tris alkaline buffer to raise pH to 7.9. Store at 4 &#176;C. CAUTION: phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol is corrosive, highly toxic and combustible.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primer3 (software)</td>
			<td>Steve Rozen &#38; Helen Skaletsky</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://biotools.umassmed.edu/bioapps/primer3_www.cgi</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor tablets</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11836170001</td>
			<td>cOmplete, Mini, EDTA-free. Use 1 tablet per 10 ml. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor tablets</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11873580001</td>
			<td>cOmplete, EDTA-free. Use 1 tablet per 50 ml. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM2548</td>
			<td>proteinase K solution (20 &#181;g/&#181;l). Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNase A</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>12091-039</td>
			<td>RNase A (20 &#181;g/&#181;l). Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotator</td>
			<td>Stuart</td>
			<td>SB3</td>
			<td>Rotator SB3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SAMtools (software)</td>
			<td>Li et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://samtools.sourceforge.neta</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solid phase reversible immobilisation beads</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A63882</td>
			<td>The Agencourt AMPure XP beads are used to minimise adaptor dimer contamination in ChIP-Seq libraries. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonicator 3000</td>
			<td>Misonix/Qsonica</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Newer models are now available. Q125, Q500 or Q700 are all suitable for shearing crosslinked chromatin.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sound enclosure</td>
			<td>Misonix/Qsonica</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>optional: follow the manufacturer&#39;s recommendation to obtain the correct sound enclosure.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>22670000</td>
			<td>Thermomixer for 24 x 1.5 mL tubes. Precise temperature control from 4 &#176;C above room temperature to 99 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

genome-wide snapshot of chromatin regulators and states in xenopus embryos by chip-seq

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and organ formation during development. Determining the locations and levels of such chromatin features in vivo will provide valuable information about the spatio-temporal regulation of genomic elements, and will support aspirations to mimic embryonic tissue development in vitro. The most commonly used method for genome-wide and high-resolution profiling is chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq). This protocol outlines how yolk-rich embryos such as those of the frog Xenopus can be processed for ChIP-Seq experiments, and it offers simple command lines for post-sequencing analysis. Because of the high efficiency with which the protocol extracts nuclei from formaldehyde-fixed tissue, the method allows easy upscaling to obtain enough ChIP material for genome-wide profiling. Our protocol has been used successfully to map various DNA-binding proteins such as transcription factors, signaling mediators, components of the transcription machinery, chromatin modifiers and post-translational histone modifications, and for this to be done at various stages of embryogenesis. Lastly, this protocol should be widely applicable to other model and non-model organisms as more and more genome assemblies become available.

Resultados equivalentes aos resultados aqui apresentados são esperados se o protocolo é bem executado e o anticorpo em uso é de qualidade ChIP-grade (ver discussão). Este protocolo permite a extracção de núcleos a partir de embriões de Xenopus fixado em formol e o corte eficiente de cromatina por ultra-sons (Figura 1A-C). Cromatina cortados mostra uma distribuição assimétrica dos fragmentos de DNA que variam normalmente de 100 a 1000 pb e com um pico entre 300 e 500 pb (Figura 1C). A 50 pg mínima de DNA imunoprecipitado é necessário para fazer com sucesso uma biblioteca ChIP-Seq emparelhado-end indexado com inserções de DNA de tamanho similar (Figura 2A). A biblioteca deve ser desprovido de dímeros do adaptador, que pode ser visto no electroferograma em aproximadamente 120 pb. Após a sequenciação por síntese, pré-processado lê são mapeados para o genoma (Figura 2B, C). Em uma experiência bem-sucedida com <em&gt; X. embriões tropicalis, normalmente 50 a 70% de um único final lê de 40 pb podem ser mapeados exclusivamente para a montagem do genoma de v7.1 maximamente com dois desemparelhamentos. Enquanto entrada lê alinhar bastante uniforme em todo o genoma, o alinhamento dos ChIP lê resultados em enriquecimentos específico de cadeia que ladeiam o recurso de cromatina de interesse. Isto porque todos os fragmentos são sequenciados a partir da extremidade 5 &#39;(Figura 2C) 25. Estendendo o alinhamento na direcção de leitura para um tamanho médio de fragmento produz perfis precisos para os dispositivos individuais de cromatina, tais como os eventos de ligação de factor de transcrição. Estas ocupações de ADN aparecem como picos quando visualizados em IGV ou qualquer outro navegador genoma compatível. Chamadores de pico como MACS são usados ​​para determinar a localização destes picos (Figura 3A). Desta forma, dezenas de milhares de locais de ligação foram determinadas no X. tropicalis genoma para T-box fatores de transcrição como Vegt 26. ChIP-qPCR experimentos deve confirmar o enriquecimento local encontrou por Chip-Seq (Figura 3B). Experimentos chip-Seq permitem explorar as características do genoma de recursos de cromatina. Por exemplo, o cálculo da distribuição de leitura sobre os elementos genômicos, como início da transcrição e locais de terminação pode destacar as preferências de ligação espaciais ao redor de genes (Figura 3C). Da mesma forma, um mapa de calor de distribuições de leitura em locais de pico é utilizado para comparar diferentes características de cromatina numa escala de todo o genoma (Figura 3D). Certos fatores de transcrição ligam DNA sequence-especificamente. De novo motivo análise do DNA genômico picos subjacentes pode recuperar esse tipo de informação, incluindo motivos co-enriquecido de potenciais co-fatores (Figura 3E). A grande maioria dos genes-alvo mostram ocupação DNA em um menor, em vez de nível superior (Figura 3F). Este recurso livre de escala parece ser bastante comum entre os trfatores anscription e sugere que apenas uma pequena fração dos genes-alvo são diretamente regulados com relevância biológica 27,28. A análise dos termos GO enriquecidos ou outros atributos, tais como a expressão diferencial de genes alvo pode revelar mais insights sobre a função biológica da característica da cromatina no embrião de Xenopus (Figura 3G). <img alt="Figura 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig1highres.jpg" /> Figura 1. Chromatin procedimento immunoprecipitation para embriões de Xenopus. (A) Os embriões estão no estágio de desenvolvimento de interesse para ligar covalentemente (cross-link) quaisquer proteínas associadas com DNA genômico fixo-formaldeído. Após a extração nuclear (B), a cromatina reticulada é fragmentada para diminuir DNA genômico de ligação ou locais de modificação da cromatina, minimizando o DN flanqueandoUma sequência (C). Subsequentemente, os fragmentos de cromatina são imunoprecipitadas com um anticorpo ChIP grau de enriquecimento daqueles contendo o epitopo de interesse (D). O DNA co-imunoprecipitou é retirada da proteína e purificado (E) antes de criar a biblioteca de fragmentos de chip para NGS (Figura 2). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, clique aqui para ver uma versão maior desta figura.</a> <img alt="Figura 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig2highres.jpg" /> Figura 2. ChIP-Seq preparação biblioteca, sequenciamento-by-síntese, mapeamento e pico de chamada. (A) O electroferograma exibe uma biblioteca boa ChIP Seq com moldes de DNA de 250 a 450 pb. Estes modelos implica a inserção de ADN de interesse ladeado pelo universal (58 pb) e o (63 pb) do adaptador indexado. (B) </strong&gt; Milhões de grupos, com cada grupo contendo modelos idênticos, são base seqüenciado por base, na presença de todos os quatro nucleotídeos que possuem reversível, fluorophore distinta e propriedades de terminação idênticos. As imagens fluorescentes são processados ​​em tempo real, para ligar as bases correspondentes, os quais, em última análise são reunidos em lê. (C) Apenas lê que o mapa de forma única para o genoma de Xenopus são mantidos. Como todos os fragmentos são sequenciados a partir da extremidade 5 &#39;, o mapeamento de ChIP lê resulta em picos específica de cadeia simples que flanqueiam o recurso de cromatina de interesse. Desse modo, os chamadores de pico detectar o enriquecimento que se origina de imunoprecipitação e estender a lê para um comprimento médio fragmento de localizar com precisão características de cromatina. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, clique aqui para ver uma versão maior desta figura.</a> <img alt = &quot;Figura 3&quot; src = &quot;/ files / ftp_upload / 52535 / 52535fig3highres.jpg&quot; /&gt; Figura 3. Um exemplo de análise pós-sequenciamento e visualização de dados por meio do fator T-box zygotic transcrição Vegt (zVegT). Todas as lidas contagens mostradas aqui são normalizados para 10 milhões exclusivamente mapeados e não redundante lê. (A) Trecho do perfil de todo o genoma de zVegT obrigatório em X. tropicalis gastrula embriões (estágio 11-12,5 após Nieuwkoop e Faber 29). Cada pico, um engavetamento de prorrogado lê, representa um local de ligação. Estes picos são denominadas por MACS2 com uma taxa de detecção de falsas (FDR) de menos do que 1%. Cada gene MESP mostra zVegT muito proximal ea montante obrigatório, mas apenas Mespa e mespb são expressos por esse estágio (dados de RNA-Seq 30). (B) os níveis de ocupação DNA de zVegT conforme determinado pelo chip-qPCR em vários loci (incluindo um não -bound região 0,5 kb a montante do β -actina) confirm o enriquecimento específico encontrado por Chip-Seq. Comparar resultados para Mespa com pico chamado (barra vermelha) em (A). O nível de ocupação de ADN é visualizado como uma percentagem de entrada para ambos, o chip com o anticorpo Vegt (policlonal de coelho do isotipo IgG) e o chip com o anticorpo de controlo (IgG de coelho normal). As barras de erro reflectem o desvio padrão de duas réplicas biológicas. (C) METAGENE análise mostra ligação preferencial zVegT (tags binned mais de 25 pb) do promotor em relação a qualquer outra região genómica em torno e dentro dos corpos de genes. (D) mostra Heatmap k-significativo agrupadas níveis (k = 5) de ocupação DNA (tags finalmente resolvido mais de 25 pb) de zVegT e Smad2 / Smad3 (dados do chip-Seq 31) em relação a todas as regiões zVegT-bound em fase de gástrula. O heatmap é log 2 base e centrado em 5 tags por bp. (E) De novo a análise descobre o motivo canônica fator de transcrição T-box motivo de ligação em 38% dos zVegT-regiões com destino se a pontuação motivo subjacente é normalizado para uma taxa de detecção de 5% em sequências de fundo. O mapa de densidade mostra maior enriquecimento para o motivo T-box no centro de locais de ligação zVegT, ao passo que o motivo de ligação de Smad2 / Smad3 canónica é dificilmente enriquecido. (F) histograma mostra os níveis de ocupação de ADN zVegT, que são calculados para cada gene alvo de todos os picos (+/- 200 pb) entre 5 kb a montante [-]. e 1 kb a jusante [+] de sítios de início da transcrição correspondente (G) Top 300 genes com os maiores níveis de ocupação DNA dentro -5 kb e um kb são enriquecido para os processos biológicos de desenvolvimento embrionário precoce. Estes vão termos estão em linha com a função putativa de zVegT. A FDR é baseado em um teste exato de duas caudas de Fisher e corrigida para testes múltiplos. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, clique aqui para ver uma versão maior desta figura.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq at JoVE.com

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

A questão de como os reguladores e os estados de cromatina cromatina afetar o genoma in vivo é essencial para a nossa compreensão de como o diagnóstico precoce decisões destino celular são feitas no embrião em desenvolvimento. Abordagem mais popular para investigar características de cromatina em um nível-se global definida aqui para embriões de Xenopus o chip-Seq-.

Snapshot Genome-wide de Reguladores da cromatina e Estados em<em&gt; Xenopus</em&gt; Os embriões por Chip-Seq

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

12.1K visualizações.  MRC National Institute for Medical Research.  A questão de como os reguladores e os estados de cromatina cromatina afetar o genoma in vivo é essencial para a nossa compreensão de como o diagnóstico precoce decisões destino celular são feitas no embrião em desenvolvimento. Abordagem mais popular para investigar características de cromatina em um nível-se global definida aqui para embriões de Xenopus o chip-Seq-. 

Vídeo: Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during oogenesis. In order to study roles of such maternal factors in early embryonic development, it is desirable to manipulate their functions from the very beginning of embryonic development. Conventional ways of gene interference are achieved by injection of antisense oligonucleotides (oligos) or mRNA into fertilized eggs, enabling under- or over-expression of specific proteins, respectively. However, these methods normally require more than several hours until protein expression is affected, and, hence, the interference of gene functions is not effective during early embryonic stages. Here, we introduce an experimental system in which expression levels of maternal proteins can be altered before fertilization. Xenopus laevis oocytes obtained from ovaries are defolliculated by incubating with enzymes. Antisense oligos or mRNAs are injected into defolliculated oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage. These oocytes are in vitro matured to eggs at the metaphase II (MII) stage, followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By this way, up to 10% of ICSI embryos can reach the swimming tadpole stage, thus allowing functional tests of specific gene knockdown or overexpression. This approach can be a useful way to study roles of maternally stored factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

We describe methods of manipulating Xenopus laevis immature oocytes, in vitro maturation of oocytes to eggs, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. This protocol allows degradation of some maternal proteins and overexpression of genes of interest at fertilization, and hence is valuable to study roles of specific factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulação e<em&gt; In Vitro</em&gt; Maturação<em&gt; Xenopus laevis</em&gt; Oócitos, seguido de injeção intracitoplasmática de espermatozóide, para estudar o desenvolvimento embrionário

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during ...

Biologia do Desenvolvimento

Accurate and Phenol Free DNA Sexing of Day 30 Porcine Embryos by PCR

Research into prenatal programming in the pig has shown that the sex of the developing embryo or fetus can influence the developmental outcome. Therefore, the ability to determine an embryo&#39;s sex is necessary in many experiments particularly regarding early development. The present protocol demonstrates an inexpensive, rapid and non-toxic preparation of pig genomic DNA for use with PCR. Day 30 embryos must be humanely collected according to the guidelines established by Institutional Animal Policy and Welfare Committees for the present protocol. The preparation of the whole embryo for this PCR based sexing technique simply involves grinding the frozen embryo to a fine powder using a pre-chilled mortar and pestle. PCR-quality DNA is released from a small amount of embryo powder by applying a hot incubation in an alkaline lysis reagent. Next, the DNA solution is mixed with neutralization buffer and used directly for PCR. Two primer pairs are generated to detect specific sex determining region of the Y- chromosome (SRY) and ZFX region of the X- chromosome with high accuracy and specificity. The same protocol can be applied to other elongated embryos (Day 10 to Day 14) earlier than Day 30. Also, this protocol can be carried with 96-welled plates when screening a large number of embryos, making it feasible for automation and high-throughput sex typing.

This protocol describes an accurate, inexpensive, rapid and non-toxic method to determine the sex of Day 30 porcine embryo using PCR method after grinding an embryo into powder without phenol chloroform extraction and DNA column purification.

Precisas e Fenol DNA Sexagem gratuito do dia 30 de Porcina embriões por PCR

Research into prenatal programming in the pig has shown that the sex of the developing embryo or fetus can influence the developmental outcome. Therefore, ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

Técnica ao Target microinjeção para o desenvolvimento<em&gt; Xenopus</em&gt; Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Generation of Parabiotic Zebrafish Embryos by Surgical Fusion of Developing Blastulae

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for candidate genes of interest, migratory behaviors of cells, and secreted signals in distinct genetic settings. Because parabiotic animals share a common circulation, any blood or blood-borne factor from one animal will be exchanged with its partner and vice versa. Thus, cells and molecular factors derived from one genetic background can be studied in the context of a second genetic background. Parabiosis of adult mice has been &#160;used extensively to research aging, cancer, diabetes, obesity, and brain development. More recently, parabiosis of zebrafish embryos has been used to study the developmental biology of hematopoiesis. In contrast to mice, the transparent nature of zebrafish embryos permits the direct visualization of cells in the parabiotic context, making it a uniquely powerful method for investigating fundamental cellular and molecular mechanisms. The utility of this technique, however, is limited by a steep learning curve for generating the parabiotic zebrafish embryos. This protocol provides a step-by-step method on how to surgically fuse the blastulae of two zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds to investigate the role of candidate genes of interest. In addition, the parabiotic zebrafish embryos are tolerant to heat shock, making temporal control of gene expression possible. This method does not require a sophisticated set-up and has broad applications for studying cell migration, fate specification, and differentiation in vivo during embryonic development.

This protocol provides step-by-step instruction on how to generate parabiotic zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds. When combined with the unparalleled imaging capabilities of the zebrafish embryo, this method provides a uniquely powerful means to investigate cell-autonomous versus non-cell-autonomous functions for candidate genes of interest.

Geração de parabiótica embriões Zebrafish por Fusion cirúrgica de Desenvolvimento blástulas

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for ...

Biosensing Motor Neuron Membrane Potential in Live Zebrafish Embryos

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the cells are located. Specifically, they have been developed to analyze the electrical activity of excitable cells, such as spinal neurons. In such a scenario, it is crucial to preserve the integrity of the spinal cell, but it is also important to preserve the anatomy and physiological shape of the systems involved. Indeed, the comprehension of the manner in which the nervous system-and other complex systems-works must be based on a systemic approach. For this reason, the live zebrafish embryo was chosen as a model system, and the spinal neuron membrane voltage changes were evaluated without interfering with the physiological conditions of the embryos. 
Here, an approach combining the employment of zebrafish embryos with a FRET-based biosensor is described. Zebrafish embryos are characterized by a very simplified nervous system and are particularly suited for imaging applications thanks to their transparency, allowing for the employment of fluorescence-based voltage indicators at the plasma membrane during zebrafish development. The synergy between these two components makes it possible to analyze the electrical activity of the cells in intact living organisms, without perturbing the physiological state. Finally, this non-invasive approach can co-exist with other analyses (e.g., spontaneous movement recordings, as shown here).

Protocols described here allow for the study of the electrical properties of excitable cells in the most non-invasive physiological conditions by employing zebrafish embryos in an in vivo system together with a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) selectively expressed in the cell type of interest.

Potencial de membrana de neurônio motor biossensível em embriões vivos de peixe-zebra

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the ...

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The efficient in vivo visualization of blood vessels and the reliable quantification of their complexity are key to understanding the biology and disease of the vascular network. Here, we provide a detailed method to visualize blood vessels with a commercially available fluorescent dye, human plasma acetylated low density lipoprotein DiI complex (DiI-AcLDL), and to quantify their complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be labeled by a simple injection of DiI-AcLDL into the beating heart of an embryo, and blood vessels in the entire embryo can be imaged in live or fixed embryos. Combined with gene perturbation by the targeted microinjection of nucleic acids and/or the bath application of pharmacological reagents, the roles of a gene or of a signaling pathway on vascular development can be investigated within one week without resorting to sophisticated genetically engineered animals. Because of the well-defined venous system of Xenopus and its stereotypic angiogenesis, the sprouting of pre-existing vessels, vessel complexity can be quantified efficiently after perturbation experiments. This relatively simple protocol should serve as an easily accessible tool in diverse fields of cardiovascular research.

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

This protocol demonstrates a fluorescence-based method to visualize the vasculature and to quantify its complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be imaged minutes after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the beating heart of an embryo after genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations to study cardiovascular development in vivo.

Visualização e Análise Quantitativa da Angiogênese Embrionária<em&gt; Xenopus tropicalis</em

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The ...

Induction of Hypoxia in Living Frog and Zebrafish Embryos

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system comprises a chamber featuring a simple setup that is nevertheless robust to induce and maintain a specific oxygen concentration and temperature in any experimental solution of choice. The presented system is very cost-effective but highly functional, it allows induction and sustainment of hypoxia for direct experiments in vivo and for various time periods up to 48 h.
To monitor and study the effects of hypoxia, we have employed two methods - measurement of levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1&#945;) in whole embryos or specific tissues and determination of retinal stem cell proliferation by 5-ethynyl-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation into the DNA. HIF-1&#945; levels can serve as a general hypoxia marker in the whole embryo or tissue of choice, here embryonic retina. EdU incorporation into the proliferating cells of embryonic retina is a specific output of hypoxia induction. Thus, we have shown that hypoxic embryonic retinal progenitors decrease proliferation within 1 h of incubation under 5% oxygen of both frog and zebrafish embryos.
Once mastered, our setup can be employed for use with small aquatic model organisms, for direct in vivo experiments, any given time period and under normal, hypoxic or hyperoxic oxygen concentration or under any other given gas mixture.

We introduce a novel hypoxic chamber system for use with aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system is simple, robust, cost-effective and allows the induction and sustainment of hypoxia in vivo and for up to 48 h. We present 2 reproducible methods to monitor the effectiveness of hypoxia.

Indução de hipóxia em sapos vivos e embriões de peixe-zebra

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and ...

CARIP-Seq and ChIP-Seq: Methods to Identify Chromatin-Associated RNAs and Protein-DNA Interactions in Embryonic Stem Cells

Embryonic stem (ES) cell self-renewal&#160;and differentiation is governed by extrinsic signals and intrinsic networks of transcription factors, epigenetic regulators, and post-translation modifications of histones that combinatorially influence the gene expression state of nearby genes. RNA has also been shown to interact with various proteins to regulate chromatin dynamics&#160;and gene expression. Chromatin-associated RNA immunoprecipitation (CARIP) followed by next-generation sequencing (CARIP-Seq) is a novel method to survey RNAs associated with chromatin proteins, while chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) is a powerful genomics technique to map the location of post-translational modification of histones, transcription factors, and epigenetic modifiers on a global-scale in ES cells. Here, we describe methods to perform CARIP-Seq and ChIP-Seq, including library construction for next-generation sequencing, to generate global chromatin-associated RNA and epigenomic maps in ES cells.

Here, we describe methods to perform ChIP-Seq and CARIP-Seq, including library preparation for next-generation sequencing, to generate global epigenomic and chromatin-associated RNA maps in ES cells.

CARIP-Seq e ChIP-Seq: métodos para identificar a cromatina associada RNAs e interações da proteína-ADN em células-tronco embrionárias

Embryonic stem (ES) cell self-renewal&#160;and differentiation is governed by extrinsic signals and intrinsic networks of transcription factors, ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

Visualizando o nó e placa Notochordal em Gastrulating embriões de rato usando microscopia eletrônica e imunofluorescência de montagem inteira

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the development of neuronal connectivity. During establishment of the retino-tectal projection, optic axons extend from the eye and navigate through distinct regions of the brain to reach their target tissue, the optic tectum. Once optic axons enter the tectum, they elaborate terminal arbors that function to increase the number of synaptic connections they can make with target interneurons in the tectum. Here, we describe a method to express DNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP), and gain- and loss-of-function gene constructs, in optic neurons (retinal ganglion cells) in Xenopus embryos. We explain how to microinject a combined DNA/lipofection reagent into eyebuds of one day old embryos such that exogenous genes are expressed in single or small numbers of optic neurons. By tagging genes with GFP or co-injecting with a GFP plasmid, terminal axonal arbors of individual optic neurons with altered molecular signaling can be imaged directly in brains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles several days later, and their morphology can be quantified. This protocol allows for determination of cell-autonomous molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of optic axon arborization in vivo.

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

This protocol aims to demonstrate how to microinject a DNA/DOTAP mixture into eyebuds of one day old Xenopus laevis embryos, and how to image and reconstruct individual green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing optic axonal arbors in tectal midbrains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles.

Microinjection do ADN em Eyebuds em embriões do laevis de Xenopus e imagem latente de GFP que expressa Arbors axonal óticos em girinos intact, vivendo de Xenopus

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the ...