Name: a simple dewar/cryostat for thermally equilibrating samples at known temperatures for accurate cryogenic luminescence measurements
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Dewar/Cryostat for Thermally Equilibrating Samples at Known Temperatures for Accurate Cryogenic Luminescence Measurements at JoVE.com

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the Office of the Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Provost at Concordia University for support of this research.&#160;&#160;The authors wish to thank G. A. Crosby for his many contributions to this investigation.

1. Sample Preparation and Loading for Cryogenic Spectroscopy
<ol>
	<li>Prepare ~3 ml of a ~10-3-10-4 M solution of luminescent chromophore in an appropriate solvent. 
	Note: While many solvents can be used, water and various alcohol solvents (e.g., ethanol, ethanol/methanol mixtures, ethylene glycol, and glycerol) provide an excellent combination of solubility and surface tension characteristics for cryogenic work.</li>
	<li>Prepare a sample loop by twisting a length of bare copper w...

<ol>
	<li>Baker, D. C., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectroscopic+and+magnetic+evidence+for+multiple-state+emission+from+tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II)+sulfate.">Spectroscopic and magnetic evidence for multiple-state emission from tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II) sulfate.</a> Chem. Phys. 4 (3), 428-433 (1974).</li><li>Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectroscopic+investigations+of+excited+states+of+transition+metal+complexes.">Spectroscopic investigations of excited states of transition metal complexes.</a> Acc. Chem. Res. 8 (7), 231-238 (1975).</li><li>Hager, G. D., Watts, R. J., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Charge+transfer+excited+states+of+ruthenium(II)+complexes+II.+Relationships+of+level+parameters+to+molecular+structure.">Charge transfer excited states of ruthenium(II) complexes II. Relationships of level parameters to molecular structure.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97 (24), 7037-7042 (1975).</li><li>Elfring, W. H., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Excited+states+of+mixed-ligand+chelates+of+ruthenium(II)+and+rhodium(III).">Excited states of mixed-ligand chelates of ruthenium(II) and rhodium(III).</a> J. Phys. Chem. 80 (20), 2206-2211 (1976).</li><li>Elfring, W. H., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Excited+states+of+mixed-ligand+chelates+of+ruthenium(II).+Quantum+yield+and+decay+time+measurements.">Excited states of mixed-ligand chelates of ruthenium(II). Quantum yield and decay time measurements.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103 (10), 2683-2687 (1976).</li><li>Fordyce, W. A., Rau, H., Stone, M. L., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+state+emission+from+rhodium(I)+and+iridium(I)+complexes.">Multiple state emission from rhodium(I) and iridium(I) complexes.</a> Chem. Phys. Lett. 77 (2), 405-408 (1981).</li><li>Pankuch, B., Crosby, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectroscopic+measurements+of+solutions+and+rigid+glasses.">Spectroscopic measurements of solutions and rigid glasses.</a> Chem. Instrum. 2 (3), 329-335 (1970).</li><li>Landee, C. P., Greeney, R. E., Lamas, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+helium+cryostat+for+a+vibrating+sample+magnetometer.">Improved helium cryostat for a vibrating sample magnetometer.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 58 (10), 1957-1958 (1987).</li><li>Fairman, R. A., Spence, K. V. N., Kahwa, I. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+liquid+nitrogen+gas-flow+cryostat+for+variable+temperature+laser+luminescence.">A simple liquid nitrogen gas-flow cryostat for variable temperature laser luminescence.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65 (2), 503-504 (1994).</li><li>Meyer, G. D., Ortiz, T. P., Costello, A. L., Kenney, J. W., Brozik, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+fiber-optic+coupled+luminescence+cryostat.">A simple fiber-optic coupled luminescence cryostat.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 73 (12), 4369-4374 (2002).</li></ol>

The development of this apparatus for low temperature luminescence spectroscopy arose out of necessity. It was critical that solutions containing the chromophore of interest and also supersaturated with oxygen could be loaded, frozen, and positioned for spectroscopy all in an instant in a Dewar/cryostat design in which sample temperature was well defined, stable, and slowly changeable. Virtually all commercial cryostats take much more time to load with sample than these experimental constraints would allow. It was also i...

Within the cryogenic temperature domain, temperature-dependent investigations of the electronic luminescence spectra and luminescence lifetimes of light emitting molecules provide a wealth of information about the excited electronic states of these molecules and the photochemical and photophysical phenomena that arise from these states. The pioneering temperature-dependent photophysical investigations of Crosby and co-workers on ruthenium(II), rhodium(I), and rhodium(III) complexes of 1,10-phenanthroline, 2,2&#39;-bipyridine, and other ligands illustrate well the inherent power of temperature-dependent spectroscopy to elucidate the structures, symmetries, energetics, and chemical behaviors of a manifold of emissive excited electronic states.1-6 
However, to do temperature-dependent cryogenic spectroscopy well is not a trivial matter. It is all too easy for the sample under spectroscopic interrogation not to be thermally equilibrated and thus to manifest a wide range of temperatures across a thermal gradient. The resulting measured spectrum is, in effect, a superposition of emissions over a range of temperatures. Moreover, even the average temperature over this range of temperatures might be quite different from the readout of the temperature probe (e.g., a thermocouple or resistance temperature device) placed on or near to the sample. Thus, to do temperature-dependent cryogenic spectroscopy correctly requires the establishment of experimental conditions under which the sample temperature is known, stable, uniform, and, when the time comes, adjustable. These conditions can be achieved with extremely modest apparatus comprised of a CCD spectrograph, excitation source, optical Dewar, and thermocouple operating under simple, straightforward experimental protocols (see Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:display-align="center" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Luminescence Spectrograph Setup for Low Temperature Spectroscopy. The system as shown in this top view includes: (a.) CCD detector, (b.) spectrograph, (c.) entrance slit and filters, (d.) luminescence collection optics, (e.) laser or arc lamp excitation source, (f.) excitation beam, (g.) a fused-silica optical Dewar on xyz translation mount, (h.) thermocouple sample junction, (i.) sample, (j.) thermocouple reference junction: 0 &#176;C = 273.15 K ice/water bath, (k.) digital voltmeter. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Undesirable thermal gradients in the sample and erroneous average sample temperatures are almost sure to result if one side of a sample is placed in physical contact with a cryogenic &#34;cold finger&#34; surface while the other side of the sample is in vacuum. The most practical way to ensure that the complete sample is at uniform measurable temperature T is to totally immerse the sample and the temperature probe in a cryogenic liquid at temperature T (e.g., liquid nitrogen or liquid helium) or in a cryogenic vapor at temperature T (e.g., cold nitrogen or cold helium vapor). Variable-temperature cryostats achieve a constant temperature sample environment by balancing cryogen flow with electrical resistance heating to achieve the desired cryogenic sample temperature.7-9 A thermal exchange gas may be employed to ensure the sample temperature is uniform. The idea is to have the sample in thermal equilibrium with the exchange gas which in turn is in thermal equilibrium with the cryostat. Cryostat designs have emerged that achieve thermal equilibration of the sample at various temperatures simply by adjusting the sample height h above the liquid level of the cryogen in a storage Dewar.10 Samples are excited and luminescence is detected via fiber optic cables or lens systems. At a given sample/probe height h, the cryogen vapor temperature is T(h) and this temperature increases as h increases (i.e., the Dewar provides a smooth thermal gradient dT/dh &#62; 0 in the vapor). The cryogen gas above the liquid in effect becomes the exchange gas. Positioning a small sample and temperature probe at h ensures thermal equilibration of the sample at T(h). To increase sample temperature, h is increased. To decrease sample temperature, h is decreased. The low temperature limit of such a cryostat is the temperature of the liquid cryogen at h = 0. This low temperature limit can be decreased further by reducing the pressure. In a large storage Dewar (e.g., a 100-L liquid helium Dewar or a 10-L liquid nitrogen Dewar), the cryogen boil-off rate is negligible during the time frame of a series of spectroscopic measurements thus allowing an adjustment in sample height h above the liquid cryogen to become a known adjustment in sample temperature.
Spectroscopic investigations in this laboratory of the temperature dependence of oxygen-induced quenching of the luminescence from transition metal complexes led to the adaptation of a small fused silica optical Dewar for variable-temperature spectroscopic investigations with liquid nitrogen in the 77-300 K range (see Figure 2).
<img alt="Figure 2" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Fused Silica Optical Dewar Setup for Variable Temperature (77-300 K) Cryogenic Luminescence Spectroscopy. This diagram of the optical Dewar illustrates the complete variable temperature system. (a.) liquid nitrogen, (b.) transparent (4.0 cm) unsilvered optical access region of Dewar, (c.) copper sample loop, (d.) thermocouple junction, (e.) silvered region of Dewar, (f.) alligator clip, (g.) wood dowel, (h.) distance between liquid nitrogen level and sample, (i.) evacuated region between inner and outer Dewar walls, (j.) cork stopper, (k.) nitrogen gas vent hole, (l.) thermocouple wires, (m.) thermocouple wires separated and secured to wood dowel with PTFE tape. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Fused silica is non-emissive and provides high optical transmission from the near ultraviolet, through the visible, and out to the near infrared (~200-2,000 nm). The basic concepts operative in the large storage Dewar system described previously10, where sample height above the liquid cryogen determines sample temperature, were successfully carried over on a small scale using this small optical Dewar. However, instead of mechanically adjusting the sample height h above a stationary liquid cryogen level to adjust the sample temperature T, the sample position with respect to the Dewar itself is fixed (Figure 2). The slow boil off of the liquid nitrogen in the optical Dewar over a period of several hours gradually increases the distance h of the sample above the falling liquid nitrogen level (Figure 3).
<img alt="Figure 3" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Close up of Sample Region of Optical Dewar. Temperatures: sample immersed in liquid nitrogen to level h0, to give T0 = 77 K; sample immersed in cold nitrogen vapor at levels h1 &#60; h2 &#60; h3 above the liquid nitrogen level to give sample temperatures T1 &#60; T2 &#60; T3. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
This allows for a slow, controlled increase in the sample temperature over time (up to several hours) while maintaining both the sample and the temperature probe, a copper-Constantan thermocouple junction, in thermal equilibrium with the cold nitrogen vapor. Luminescence spectra spanning the visible and near-infrared regions are acquired in just a few milliseconds per spectrum (or hundreds of spectra per second) with a CCD-equipped luminescence spectrograph during which sample temperature is virtually constant (&#916;T &#60; 0.1 K) as each spectral dataset is acquired. Typical wait times between spectra at temperatures ~5 K apart are ~5-15 min. Moreover, the effects of sample heating or photochemical degradation of the sample by the exciting light are minimized since the excitation light is only allowed to strike the sample a few seconds per spectrum. In the interest of simplicity, portability, and quickness of sample loading, fiber optic cables are not employed. Samples are excited directly with either the 365 nm band from a mercury arc lamp or the 405 nm line of a diode laser. Emitted light from the samples is picked up directly from the emitting sample in the Dewar by a collection lens and impinged on the entrance slit of the spectrograph by a focusing lens. Samples of the ruthenium and rhodium complexes under investigation are prepared for spectroscopic study as thin films of ~10-3-10-4 M solute in oxygen-saturated solutions. The solutions are held by surface tension in small copper wire loops (~3 mm loop diameter formed out of 0.0150 in. dia. copper wire). The thermocouple junction height is then adjusted so it is equal to the sample height (hthermocouple = hsample) and in close proximity to the sample loop as shown in Figures 2 and 3. Temperatures are determined by measuring the voltage difference between the thermocouple sample junction and a 0 &#176;C water/ice thermocouple reference junction using a high-impedance digital voltmeter and comparing to a temperature vs. voltage table for a Type T copper/Constantan thermocouple. The thin-film sample solutions captured in the wire loops are flash frozen by quick immersion in liquid nitrogen in the optical Dewar. Then the frozen solutions are allowed to warm up very gradually over time, remaining frozen, while their luminescence spectra are measured as a function of temperature. The luminescence intensity versus temperature data are analyzed according to the following model.
The total luminescence intensity of the sample at temperature T is given as the sum of the intensities arising from oxygenated and unoxygenated complexes:
<img alt="Equation 2" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq2.jpg" />.&#160;&#160;&#160; (1)
The luminescence intensity from the complexes without oxygen is assumed to be temperature independent. However, the luminescence intensity of the oxygenated complexes will decrease exponentially with increasing temperature due to oxygen quenching. This can be described by an Arrhenius equation of the form
<img alt="Equation 3" fo:vertical-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq3.jpg" />.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (2)
In Equation (2), Ea is the quenching activation energy and k is the Boltzmann constant. The maximum luminescence intensity will be observed in the low temperature region (see Figure 5), where there is insufficient thermal energy to overcome the quenching activation barrier (i.e., energy transfer from the complex to oxygen). If Equation (2) is substituted into Equation (1), the expression
<img alt="Equation 5" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq5.jpg" />&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (3)
is obtained. In Equation (3), <img alt="Equation 6" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq6.jpg" /> is the intensity arising from oxygenated complexes in the low temperature region. Rearrangement of Equation (3) yields
<img alt="Equation 7" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq7.jpg" />.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (4)
Taking the natural logarithm of the both sides of Equation (4) gives the expression
<img alt="Equation 8" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq8.jpg" />.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (5)
From Equation (5) it is evident that a plot of <img alt="Equation 9" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq9.jpg" />versus&#160;<img alt="Equation 10" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq10.jpg" /> will give a straight line with <img alt="Equation 11" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq11.jpg" />, from which the luminescence quenching activation energy is obtained as
<img alt="Equation 12" fo:display-align="middle" src="/files/ftp_upload/54267/54267eq12.jpg" />.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (6)

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="819">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Diode laser 405 nm</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:295px;">Generic pencil-type laser pointer for luminescence excitation: 5 mW at 405 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Quartz optical dewar</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Custom fabrication</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>3.5 cm id. X 25.0 cm length with 4.5 cm unsilvered region for optical access</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Programmable 5 1/2 digit DMM</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Keithley</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Model 192</td>
			<td>High impedence DMM for reading thermocouple voltages</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Copper thermocouple wire</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Omega Engineering</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SPCP-010</td>
			<td>0.010 in. diameter bare copper thermocouple wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Constantan thermocouple wire</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Omega Engineering</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SPCC-010</td>
			<td>0.010 in. diameter bare Constantan (copper/nickel) thermocouple wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Polychromator/Spectrograph</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Jarrell-Ash</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">82-415</td>
			<td>0.25 m Ebert monochromator with back slit assembly removed to enable operation as a polychromator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">CCD camera</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Andor</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DV-401-UV</td>
			<td>Thermoelectrically cooled (-35 C) CCD camera for detecting emitted light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Copper wire for sample loop</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Generic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>0.0150 in. diameter bare copper wire for sample loop</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a simple dewar/cryostat for thermally equilibrating samples at known temperatures for accurate cryogenic luminescence measurements

The design and operation of a simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus based upon a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple assembly, and a CCD spectrograph are described. The experiments for which this Dewar/cryostat is designed require fast sample loading, fast sample freezing, fast alignment of the sample, accurate and stable sample temperatures, and small size and portability of the Dewar/cryostat cryogenic unit. When coupled with the fast data acquisition rates of the CCD spectrograph, this Dewar/cryostat is capable of supporting cryogenic luminescence spectroscopic measurements on luminescent samples at a series of known, stable temperatures in the 77-300 K range. A temperature-dependent study of the oxygen quenching of luminescence in a rhodium(III) transition metal complex is presented as an example of the type of investigation possible with this Dewar/cryostat. In the context of this apparatus, a stable temperature for cryogenic spectroscopy means a luminescent sample that is thermally equilibrated with either liquid nitrogen or gaseous nitrogen at a known measureable temperature that does not vary (&#916;T &#60; 0.1 K) during the short time scale (~1-10 sec) of the spectroscopic measurement by the CCD. The Dewar/cryostat works by taking advantage of the positive thermal gradient dT/dh that develops above liquid nitrogen level in the Dewar where h is the height of the sample above the liquid nitrogen level. The slow evaporation of the liquid nitrogen results in a slow increase in h over several hours and a consequent slow increase in the sample temperature T over this time period. A quickly acquired luminescence spectrum effectively catches the sample at a constant, thermally equilibrated temperature.

Representative results obtained in the above described apparatus for a temperature-dependent luminescence quenching study in the 77-200 K region of the luminescent compound Tris(4,7-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)rhodium(III), [Rh(4,7-Me2-1,10-phen)3]3+, dissolved in oxygen-saturated glycerol are listed in Table 1 and plotted in Figures 4, 5, and 7.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Dewar/Cryostat for Thermally Equilibrating Samples at Known Temperatures for Accurate Cryogenic Luminescence Measurements at JoVE.com

A Simple Dewar/Cryostat for Thermally Equilibrating Samples at Known Temperatures for Accurate Cryogenic Luminescence Measurements

A simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus comprised of a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple, and a charge-coupled device (CCD) spectrograph are described. The experiments for which this Dewar/cryostat is designed require fast sample loading, freezing, and alignment, accurate and stable sample temperatures, and small size/portability.

The design and operation of a simple liquid nitrogen Dewar/cryostat apparatus based upon a small fused silica optical Dewar, a thermocouple assembly, and ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to measure temperature dependent luminescence spectral intensities. This method can help answer key questions on the topic of excited state energy migration in metal complexes. Such as, ruthenium diamine complexes.The main advantage of this technique is that by using a simple apparatus and procedure, accurate temperature dependence spectral intensities can be measured. Demonstrating the procedure will be Cameron Portune, a technician from my laboratory. First, prepare about three millimeters of low molarity luminescent chromophore solution in water or in alcohol for the best combination of surface tension and solubility.Next, prepare a sample loop. Twist a length of bare copper wire around a nail or screw to give a single loop, followed by about 30 millimeters of twisted wire. Then rinse the loop with nitric acid, followed by distilled water, and finally with 95%ethanol.Be sure to put on protective gear for the next step. Dip the loop, once dry, into the sample solution. The surface tension of the solution should create a thin film of the solution in the loop.Then, immediately dip the loaded sample loop into liquid nitrogen to freeze and stabilize the thin film sample solution. Begin with preparing a copper constantan, or Type T thermocouple from two lengths of copper wire and one length constantan wire which is a copper nickel alloy. Next, clamp the copper and contstantan wires together at a 90 degree angle.Sauter or twist together two copper constantan junctions. One is for the sample and the other is for a standard reference. It really helps for two people do to this step.Then, pull the two wires firmly and twist them together five or six times. The insulation ensures that the only contact made will be at the thermocouple junction. Next, connect the two copper thermocouple wires from the sample and reference junctions to the input terminals of a volt meter.Then place both the sample and reference junctions in a zero degrees Celsius ice water bath and zero the volt meter. Next, the loaded sample loop and thermocouple junction are aligned in the liquid nitrogen-filled optical dewar. This requires a cork that fits snugly into the top of the optical dewar.Prepare a standard grip to hold the loop using a clip, a dowel, and some plumber's tape. Then, align the sample loop of the thermocouple junction with the path of the excitation light beam. At least an hour in advance, turn on all the electronics on the CCD spectrograph.Also, turn on the pal te cooled CCD camera to reach a stable operating temperature. When conducting the test, monitor the temperature on the volt meter while the nitrogen slowly boils off. The volt meter accurately reports the temperature because the sample is fully immersed either in liquid nitrogen or cold vapor.Take spectra at every five Kelvin increment. To do this, momentarily turn on or unblock the excitation light and use the CCD spectrograph to acquire a luminescent spectrum. This takes just a few seconds.Then, turn off or reblock the excitation light to minimize photochemical degradation or sample heating errors. The thermocouple voltage should not change appreciably from beginning to the end of the acquisition interval. For the analysis, convert the reported voltage to temperature.Taking these measurements, make no changes to the optics, electronics, or excitation light intensity. Later, intensity correct the CCD spectral data sets. The complex tris-four-seven-dimethyl-one-tenth-ananthroleme rodium three was dissolved in oxygen-saturated glycerol and investigated using the described method at temperatures between 77 and 200 Kelvin.The luminescence intensity remained essentially constant from 77 Kelvin to 175 Kelvin, then progressively diminished as the temperature increased from 175 Kelvin to 240 Kelvin. A plot was made of a parameter that represents the extent of quenching versus the reciprocal Kelvin temperature. An oxygen luminescence quenching activation energy of 31.5 kilojoules per mole was thus calculated.The quenching activation energy for several other related complexes was also obtained by this method. The internal consistency of these results suggests that the sample temperature is known and constant while spectra are being acquired. This technique can be done in one to two hours if it is performed properly.While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember that the sample and thermocouple cannot be moved once the experiment starts or intensity readings will not be consistent.

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Angle-resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy At Ultra-low Temperatures

The physical properties of a material are defined by its electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;) and momentum (k) and the probability to find them in a particular state with given &omega; and k is described by the spectral function A(k, &omega;). This function can be directly measured in an experiment based on the well-known photoelectric effect, for the explanation of which Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize back in 1921. In the photoelectric effect the light shone on a surface ejects electrons from the material. According to Einstein, energy conservation allows one to determine the energy of an electron inside the sample, provided the energy of the light photon and kinetic energy of the outgoing photoelectron are known. Momentum conservation makes it also possible to estimate k relating it to the momentum of the photoelectron by measuring the angle at which the photoelectron left the surface. The modern version of this technique is called Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) and exploits both conservation laws in order to determine the electronic structure, i.e. energy and momentum of electrons inside the solid. In order to resolve the details crucial for understanding the topical problems of condensed matter physics, three quantities need to be minimized: uncertainty* in photon energy, uncertainty in kinetic energy of photoelectrons and temperature of the sample.
In our approach we combine three recent achievements in the field of synchrotron radiation, surface science and cryogenics. We use synchrotron radiation with tunable photon energy contributing an uncertainty of the order of 1 meV, an electron energy analyzer which detects the kinetic energies with a precision of the order of 1 meV and a He3 cryostat which allows us to keep the temperature of the sample below 1 K. We discuss the exemplary results obtained on single crystals of Sr2RuO4 and some other materials. The electronic structure of this material can be determined with an unprecedented clarity.

The overall goal of this method is to determine the low-energy electronic structure of solids at ultra-low temperatures using Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy with synchrotron radiation.

The physical properties of a material are defined by its  electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;)  and momentum ...

Concurrent Quantitative Conductivity and Mechanical Properties Measurements of Organic Photovoltaic Materials using AFM

Organic photovoltaic (OPV) materials are inherently inhomogeneous at the nanometer scale. Nanoscale inhomogeneity of OPV materials affects performance of photovoltaic devices. Thus, understanding of spatial variations in composition as well as electrical properties of OPV materials is of paramount importance for moving PV technology forward.1,2 In this paper, we describe a protocol for quantitative measurements of electrical and mechanical properties of OPV materials with sub-100 nm resolution. Currently, materials properties measurements performed using commercially available AFM-based techniques (PeakForce, conductive AFM) generally provide only qualitative information. The values for resistance as well as Young's modulus measured using our method on the prototypical ITO/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT:PC61BM system correspond well with literature data. The P3HT:PC61BM blend separates onto PC61BM-rich and P3HT-rich domains. Mechanical properties of PC61BM-rich and P3HT-rich domains are different, which allows for domain attribution on the surface of the film. Importantly, combining mechanical and electrical data allows for correlation of the domain structure on the surface of the film with electrical properties variation measured through the thickness of the film.

Organic photovoltaic (OPV) materials are inherently inhomogeneous at the nanometer scale. Nanoscale inhomogeneity of OPV materials affects performance of photovoltaic devices. In this paper, we describe a protocol for quantitative measurements of electrical and mechanical properties of OPV materials with sub-100 nm resolution.

Organic photovoltaic  (OPV) materials are inherently inhomogeneous at the nanometer scale. Nanoscale  inhomogeneity of OPV materials affects performance ...

Synthesis and Microdiffraction at Extreme Pressures and Temperatures

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary interiors, design materials with novel properties, understand the mechanical behavior of materials exposed to very high stresses as in explosions or impacts. Synthesis and structural analysis of materials at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature entails remarkable technical challenges. In the laser heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC), very high pressure is generated between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils forced against each other; focused infrared laser beams, shined through the diamonds, allow to reach very high temperatures on samples absorbing the laser radiation. When the LH-DAC is installed in a synchrotron beamline that provides extremely brilliant x-ray radiation, the structure of materials under extreme conditions can be probed in situ. LH-DAC samples, although very small, can show highly variable grain size, phase and chemical composition. In order to obtain the high resolution structural analysis and the most comprehensive characterization of a sample, we collect diffraction data in 2D grids and combine powder, single crystal and multigrain diffraction techniques. Representative results obtained in the synthesis of a new iron oxide, Fe4O5 1 will be shown.

The laser heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron micro-diffraction techniques allows researchers to explore the nature and properties of new phases of matter at extreme pressure and temperature (PT) conditions. Heterogeneous samples can be characterized in situ under high pressure by 2D mapping and combined powder, single-crystal and multigrain diffraction approaches.

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary ...

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats &amp; Spheres

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial shape (i.e., surface figure), will converge to final surface figure with excellent surface quality under a fixed, unchanging set of polishing parameters in a single polishing iteration. In contrast, conventional full aperture polishing methods require multiple, often long, iterative cycles involving polishing, metrology and process changes to achieve the desired surface figure. The Convergent Polishing process is based on the concept of workpiece-lap height mismatch resulting in pressure differential that decreases with removal and results in the workpiece converging to the shape of the lap. The successful implementation of the Convergent Polishing process is a result of the combination of a number of technologies to remove all sources of non-uniform spatial material removal (except for workpiece-lap mismatch) for surface figure convergence and to reduce the number of rogue particles in the system for low scratch densities and low roughness. The Convergent Polishing process has been demonstrated for the fabrication of both flats and spheres of various shapes, sizes, and aspect ratios on various glass materials. The practical impact is that high quality optical components can be fabricated more rapidly, more repeatedly, with less metrology, and with less labor, resulting in lower unit costs. In this study, the Convergent Polishing protocol is specifically described for fabricating 26.5 cm square fused silica flats from a fine ground surface to a polished ~&#955;/2 surface figure after polishing 4 hr per surface on a 81 cm diameter polisher.

A novel optical polishing process, called &#8220;Convergent Polishing&#8221;, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial ...

Preparation and Friction Force Microscopy Measurements of Immiscible, Opposing Polymer Brushes

Solvated polymer brushes are well known to lubricate high-pressure contacts, because they can sustain a positive normal load while maintaining low friction at the interface. Nevertheless, these systems can be sensitive to wear due to interdigitation of the opposing brushes. In a recent publication, we have shown via molecular dynamics simulations and atomic force microscopy experiments, that using an immiscible polymer brush system terminating the substrate and the slider surfaces, respectively, can eliminate such interdigitation. As a consequence, wear in the contacts is reduced. Moreover, the friction force is two orders of magnitude lower compared to traditional miscible polymer brush systems. This newly proposed system therefore holds great potential for application in industry. Here, the methodology to construct an immiscible polymer brush system of two different brushes each solvated by their own preferred solvent is presented. The procedure how to graft poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) from a flat surface and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) from an atomic force microscopy (AFM) colloidal probe is described. PNIPAM is solvated in water and PMMA in acetophenone. Via friction force AFM measurements, it is shown that the friction for this system is indeed reduced by two orders of magnitude compared to the miscible system of PMMA on PMMA solvated in acetophenone.

The methodology to perform friction force microscopy experiments for contacting brushes is presented: Two polymer brushes that are grafted from (a) substrates and (b) colloidal probes are slid to show that, by using two contacting immiscible brush systems, friction in sliding contacts is reduced compared to miscible brush systems.

Solvated polymer brushes are well known to lubricate high-pressure contacts, because they can sustain a positive normal load while maintaining low ...

Three-dimensional Particle Tracking Velocimetry for Turbulence Applications: Case of a Jet Flow

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic recording of image sequences. The basic components, features, constraints and optimization tips of a 3D-PTV topology consisting of a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter are described and discussed in this article. The technique is applied to the intermediate flow field (5 &#60;x/d &#60;25) of a circular jet at Re &#8776; 7,000. Lagrangian flow features and turbulence quantities in an Eulerian frame are estimated around ten diameters downstream of the jet origin and at various radial distances from the jet core. Lagrangian properties include trajectory, velocity and acceleration of selected particles as well as curvature of the flow path, which are obtained from the Frenet-Serret equation. Estimation of the 3D velocity and turbulence fields around the jet core axis at a cross-plane located at ten diameters downstream of the jet is compared with literature, and the power spectrum of the large-scale streamwise velocity motions is obtained at various radial distances from the jet core.

A three-dimensional particle tracking velocimetry (3D-PTV) system based on a high-speed camera with a four-view splitter is described here. The technique is applied to a jet flow from a circular pipe in the vicinity of ten diameters downstream at Reynolds number Re &#8776; 7,000.

3D-PTV is a quantitative flow measurement technique that aims to track the Lagrangian paths of a set of particles in three dimensions using stereoscopic ...

Nanostructured Ag-zeolite Composites as Luminescence-based Humidity Sensors

Small silver clusters confined inside zeolite matrices have recently emerged as a novel type of highly luminescent materials. Their emission has high external quantum efficiencies (EQE) and spans the whole visible spectrum. It has been recently reported that the UV excited luminescence of partially Li-exchanged sodium Linde type A zeolites [LTA(Na)] containing luminescent silver clusters can be controlled by adjusting the water content of the zeolite. These samples showed a dynamic change in their emission color from blue to green and yellow upon an increase of the hydration level of the zeolite, showing the great potential that these materials can have as luminescence-based humidity sensors at the macro and micro scale. Here, we describe the detailed procedure to fabricate a humidity sensor prototype using silver-exchanged zeolite composites. The sensor is produced by suspending the luminescent Ag-zeolites in an aqueous solution of polyethylenimine (PEI) to subsequently deposit a film of the material onto a quartz plate. The coated plate is subjected to several hydration/dehydration cycles to show the functionality of the sensing film.

A protocol for the synthesis of moisture-responsive luminescent Ag-zeolite composites is described in this report.

Small silver clusters confined inside zeolite matrices have recently emerged as a novel type of highly luminescent materials. Their emission has high ...

Measuring the Densities of Aqueous Glasses at Cryogenic Temperatures

We demonstrate a method for determining the vitreous phase cryogenic temperature densities of aqueous mixtures, and other samples that require rapid cooling, to prepare the desired cryogenic temperature phase. Microliter to picoliter size drops are cooled by projection into a liquid nitrogen-argon (N2-Ar) mixture. The cryogenic temperature phase of the drop is evaluated using a visual assay that correlates with X-ray diffraction measurements. The density of the liquid N2-Ar mixture is adjusted by adding N2 or Ar until the drop becomes neutrally buoyant. The density of this mixture and thus of the drop is determined using a test mass and Archimedes principle. With appropriate care in drop preparation, management of gas above the liquid cryogen mixture to minimize icing, and regular mixing of the cryogenic mixture to prevent density stratification and phase separation, densities accurate to &#60;0.5% of drops as small as 50 pL can readily be determined. Measurements on aqueous cryoprotectant mixtures provide insight into cryoprotectant action, and provide quantitative data to facilitate thermal contraction matching in biological cryopreservation.

A protocol for determining the vitreous phase densities of micro- to pico-liter size drops of aqueous mixtures at cryogenic temperatures is described.

We demonstrate a method for determining the vitreous phase cryogenic temperature densities of aqueous mixtures, and other samples that require rapid ...

Processing of Bulk Nanocrystalline Metals at the US Army Research Laboratory

Given their potential for significant property improvements relative to their large grained counterparts, much work has been devoted to the continued development of nanocrystalline metals. Despite these efforts, the transition of these materials from the lab bench to actual applications has been blocked by the inability to produce large scale parts that retain the desired nanocrystalline microstructures. Following the development of a method proven to stabilize the nanosized grain structure to temperatures approaching that of the melting point for the given metal, the US Army Research Laboratory (ARL) has progressed to the next stage in the development of these materials - namely the production of large scale parts suitable for testing and evaluation in a range of relevant test environments. This report provides a broad overview of the ongoing efforts in the processing, characterization, and consolidation of these materials at ARL. In particular, focus is placed on the methodology used for producing the nanocrystalline metal powders, in both small and large-scale amounts, that are at the center of ongoing research efforts.

This paper provides a brief overview of the ongoing efforts at the Army Research Laboratory on the processing of bulk nanocrystalline metals with an emphasis on the methodologies used for the production of the novel metal powders.

Given their potential for significant property improvements relative to their large grained counterparts, much work has been devoted to the continued ...

Carrier Lifetime Measurements in Semiconductors through the Microwave Photoconductivity Decay Method

This work presents a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay (&#956;-PCD) for measurement of the carrier lifetime in semiconductor materials, especially SiC. In principle, excess carriers in the semiconductor generated via excitation recombine with time and, subsequently, return to the equilibrium state. The time constant of this recombination is known as the carrier lifetime, an important parameter in semiconductor materials and devices that requires a noncontact and nondestructive measurement ideally achieved by the &#956;-PCD. During irradiation of a sample, a part of the microwave is reflected by the semiconductor sample. Microwave reflectance depends on the sample conductivity, which is attributed to the carriers. Therefore, the time decay of excess carriers can be observed through detection of the reflected microwave intensity, whose decay curve can be analyzed for estimation of the carrier lifetime. Results confirm the suitability of the &#956;-PCD protocol in measuring the carrier lifetime in semiconductor materials and devices.

As one of the important physical parameters in semiconductors, carrier lifetime is measured herein via a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay method.

This work presents a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay (&#956;-PCD) for measurement of the carrier lifetime in semiconductor ...