Name: ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine
Uploaded: 2017-03-13T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine at JoVE.com

The authors have no acknowledgements.

Caution: There are two poisonous chemicals, methanol and ethylene glycol, used in these experiments. Methanol can be metabolized in the human body to generate formaldehyde and then to formic acid or formate salt. These substances are poisonous to the central nervous system and may even cause death. Ethylene glycol can be oxidized to glycolic acid, which can then turn into oxalic acid. This can cause kidney failure and death. Do not drink these chemicals. Consult a doctor immediately if an accident occurs.
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<ol>
	<li>Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cleaning+and+separation+in+conduits.">Cleaning and separation in conduits.</a> UK patent. , (2001).</li><li>Quarini, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice-pigging+to+reduce+and+remove+fouling+and+to+achieve+clean-in-place.">Ice-pigging to reduce and remove fouling and to achieve clean-in-place.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 22, 747-753 (2002).</li><li>Evans, T. S., Quarini, G. L., Shire, G. S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+into+the+transportation+and+melting+of+thick+ice+slurries+in+pipes.">Investigation into the transportation and melting of thick ice slurries in pipes.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 31, 145-151 (2008).</li><li>Shire, G. S. F., Quarini, G. L., Rhys, T. D. L., Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anomalous+pressure+drop+behaviour+of+ice+slurries+flowing+through+constrictions.">The anomalous pressure drop behaviour of ice slurries flowing through constrictions.</a> Int. J. Multiph. Flow. 34, 510-515 (2008).</li><li>Shire, G. S. F., Quarini, G. L., Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pressure+drop+of+flowing+ice+slurries+in+industrial+heat+exchangers.">Pressure drop of flowing ice slurries in industrial heat exchangers.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 29, 1500-1506 (2009).</li><li>Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Technical Aspects of Pipeline Pigging with Flowing Ice Slurries [dissertation]. , (2007).</li><li>Shire, G. S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The behaviour of ice pigging slurries [dissertation]. , (2006).</li><li>Hales, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+fraction+measurement+of+ice+slurries+through+electromagnetic+attenuation.">Ice fraction measurement of ice slurries through electromagnetic attenuation.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 47, 98-104 (2014).</li><li>Hales, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+salinity+and+temperature+on+electromagnetic+wave+attenuation+in+brine.">The effect of salinity and temperature on electromagnetic wave attenuation in brine.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 51, 161-168 (2015).</li><li>Hales, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Ice slurry diagnostics through electromagnetic wave attenuation and other techniques [dissertation]. , (2015).</li><li>Lucas, E. J. K., Hales, A., McBryde, D., Yun, X., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+Ultrasonic+Monitoring+of+Ice+Pigging+in+Pipes+Containing+Liquid+Food+Materials.">Noninvasive Ultrasonic Monitoring of Ice Pigging in Pipes Containing Liquid Food Materials.</a> J. Food Process. Eng. 40, e12306 (2015).</li><li>Carrasco, J., Hodgson, A., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+molecular+perspective+of+water+at+metal+interfaces.">A molecular perspective of water at metal interfaces.</a> Nat. Mater. 11, 667-674 (2012).</li><li>Hu, X. L., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+formation+on+kaolinite:+Lattice+match+or+amphoterism?+.">Ice formation on kaolinite: Lattice match or amphoterism? .</a> Surf. Sci. 601, 5378-5381 (2007).</li><li>Hu, X. L., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+kaolinite+(0+0+1)+polar+basal+plane.">The kaolinite (0 0 1) polar basal plane.</a> Surf. Sci. 604, 111-117 (2010).</li><li>Leiper, A. N., Ash, D. G., McBryde, D. J., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+the+thermal+efficiency+of+ice+slurry+production+through+comminution.">Improving the thermal efficiency of ice slurry production through comminution.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 35, 1931-1939 (2012).</li><li>Leiper, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Carnot cycle optimisation of ice slurry production through comminution of bulk ice [dissertation]. , (2012).</li><li>Leiper, A. N., Hammond, E. C., Ash, D. G., McBryde, D. J., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Energy+conservation+in+ice+slurry+applications.">Energy conservation in ice slurry applications.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 51, 1255-1262 (2013).</li><li>B&#233;d&#233;carrats, J. -. P., David, T., Castaing-Lasvignottes, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+slurry+production+using+supercooling+phenomenon.">Ice slurry production using supercooling phenomenon.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 33, 196-204 (2010).</li><li>Wijeysundera, N. E., Hawlader, M. N. A., Andy, C. W. B., Hossain, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice-slurry+production+using+direct+contact+heat+transfer.">Ice-slurry production using direct contact heat transfer.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 27, 511-519 (2004).</li><li>Reynolds, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+extent+and+action+of+the+heating+surface+of+steam+boilers.">On the extent and action of the heating surface of steam boilers.</a> Proc. Lit. Philos. Soc. Manch. 14, 7-12 (1874).</li><li>Reynolds, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Papers on mechanical and physical subjects: reprinted from various transactions and journals. , 81-85 (1900).</li><li>Reynolds, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Papers+on+mechanical+and+physical+subjects.">Papers on mechanical and physical subjects.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 12, 129-136 (1969).</li><li>Prandtl, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eine+Beziehung+zwischen+W&#228;rmeaustausch+und+Str&#246;mungswiderstand+der+Fl&#252;ssigkeiten+(On+the+relation+between+heat+exchange+and+stream+resistance+of+fluid+flow).">Eine Beziehung zwischen W&#228;rmeaustausch und Str&#246;mungswiderstand der Fl&#252;ssigkeiten (On the relation between heat exchange and stream resistance of fluid flow).</a> Physik. Z. 11, 1072-1078 (1910).</li><li>Prandtl, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bemerkung+&#252;ber+den+W&#228;rme&#252;bergang+im+Rohr+(Note+on+heat+transmission+in+pipes).">Bemerkung &#252;ber den W&#228;rme&#252;bergang im Rohr (Note on heat transmission in pipes).</a> Physik. Z. 29, 487-489 (1928).</li><li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conditions+at+the+surface+of+a+hot+body+exposed+to+the+wind.">Conditions at the surface of a hot body exposed to the wind.</a> Rep. Memo. ACA. 272, (1916).</li><li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Application+of+Osborne+Reynolds'+Theory+of+Heat+Transfer+to+Flow+through+a+Pipe.">The Application of Osborne Reynolds' Theory of Heat Transfer to Flow through a Pipe.</a> Proc. R. Soc. A. 129, 25-30 (1930).</li><li>K&#225;rm&#225;n, T. v. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress for Applied Mechanics. , 54-91 (1934).</li><li>K&#225;rm&#225;n, T. v. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+analogy+between+fluid+friction+and+heat+transfer.">The analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer.</a> Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 61, 705-710 (1939).</li><li>Martinelli, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+to+molten+metals.">Heat transfer to molten metals.</a> Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 69, 947-959 (1947).</li><li>Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+of+correlating+forced+convection+heat-transfer+data+and+a+comparison+with+fluid+friction.">A method of correlating forced convection heat-transfer data and a comparison with fluid friction.</a> Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. 29, 174-210 (1933).</li><li>Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+of+correlating+forced+convection+heat-transfer+data+and+a+comparison+with+fluid+friction.">A method of correlating forced convection heat-transfer data and a comparison with fluid friction.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 7, 1359-1384 (1964).</li><li>Chilton, T. H., Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mass+Transfer+(Absorption)+Coefficients+Prediction+from+Data+on+Heat+Transfer+and+Fluid+Friction.">Mass Transfer (Absorption) Coefficients Prediction from Data on Heat Transfer and Fluid Friction.</a> Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 1183-1187 (1934).</li><li>Friend, W. L., Metzner, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turbulent+heat+transfer+inside+tubes+and+the+analogy+among+heat,+mass,+and+momentum+transfer.">Turbulent heat transfer inside tubes and the analogy among heat, mass, and momentum transfer.</a> AIChE J. 4, 393-402 (1958).</li><li>Bejan, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constructal-theory+network+of+conducting+paths+for+cooling+a+heat+generating+volume.">Constructal-theory network of conducting paths for cooling a heat generating volume.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 40, 799-816 (1997).</li><li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constructal+theory+of+generation+of+configuration+in+nature+and+engineering.">Constructal theory of generation of configuration in nature and engineering.</a> J. Appl. Phys. 100, 041301 (2006).</li><li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S., Yilbas, B. S., Sahin, A. Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Why+solidification+has+an+S-shaped+history.">Why solidification has an S-shaped history.</a> Sci. Rep. 3, 1711 (2013).</li><li>Lake, R. A., Lewis, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salt+rejection+by+sea+ice+during+growth.">Salt rejection by sea ice during growth.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 75, 583-597 (1970).</li><li>Wettlaufer, J. S., Worster, M. G., Huppert, H. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+convection+during+solidification+of+an+alloy+from+above+with+application+to+the+evolution+of+sea+ice.">Natural convection during solidification of an alloy from above with application to the evolution of sea ice.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 344, 291-316 (1997).</li><li>Paige, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stalactite+Growth+beneath+Sea+Ice.">Stalactite Growth beneath Sea Ice.</a> Science. 167, 171-172 (1970).</li><li>Dayton, P. K., Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observations+of+ice+stalactites+in+McMurdo+Sound,+Antarctica.">Observations of ice stalactites in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 76, 1595-1599 (1971).</li><li>Eide, L. I., Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+formation+of+brine+drainage+features+in+young+sea+ice.">The formation of brine drainage features in young sea ice.</a> J. Glaciol. 14, 137-154 (1975).</li><li>Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+stalactites:+comparison+of+a+laminar+flow+theory+with+experiment.">Ice stalactites: comparison of a laminar flow theory with experiment.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 63, 51-79 (1974).</li><li>Jeffs, K., Attenborough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Frozen Planet: Episode 5 'Winter'. , (2011).</li><li>Fothergill, A., Berlowitz, V., Attenborough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch.+Winter:+Life+closes+down.">Ch. Winter: Life closes down.</a> in Frozen Planet: A World Beyond Imagination. , (2011).</li><li>Yun, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ice+formation+in+the+subcooled+brine+environment.">Ice formation in the subcooled brine environment.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 95, 198-205 (2016).</li><li>Weast, R. 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The process of ice generation using brine as a secondary refrigerant involves the combination of heat and mass transfer. If the heat transfer is greater, then ice forms before the water has the chance to mix with the bulk fluid. It was observed that when there is a relative movement between the introduced water and the quiescent bulk brine (i.e., injecting water within the brine), the flow helps the heat transfer and encourages ice to form rapidly. However, when there is too much turbulence in the flow, no ice c...

Ice slurries are extensively used in industry, and one particularly successful application is the ice-pigging technology1,2. In comparison to the conventional foam and solid pig, the ice pig can travel through complex topologies over a long distance because of the lubrication effect of the liquid phase and the elevation of its freezing point as some of the ice crystals melt3,4,5. Even if the pig gets stuck, one can simply wait for the ice slurries to melt and resume the cleaning process later. This method of pipe cleaning is cheap and easy to use.
The ice fraction plays a key role in the performance of the ice pig. To measure the ice fraction, one can use a cafeti&#232;re (French press) to determine if the ice slurry is thick enough6,7. A high cafeti&#232;re ice fraction, typically 80%, is required when carrying out ice pigging. Recent research on online ice fraction detection showed that both electromagnetic and ultrasonic waves are suitable for the job8,9,10,11.
The ice pig is usually made by a scraped-surface ice maker from a 5 wt% NaCl solution (brine). It is also the primary way of making ice slurries in industry. This type of ice maker freezes water or brine onto a cold metallic surface, typically a smooth 316 steel surface and then cyclically shears the ice particles off. The liquid-to-metal interfaces are very complex and are affected by a broad range of factors that are essential to ice making12. The interface between non-metal and water can be very different, and one especially interesting example is Kaolinite. The Kaolinite-water interface is special because there is not a favorable ice structure adjacent to the solid&#39;s surface, but rather a layer of amphoteric substrate fluid that encourages the ice-like hydrogen-bonded clusters to form on top of it13,14. Another way of producing the ice pig requires crushing the premade ice blocks while high-concentration brine is added simultaneously. For this method, the refrigeration system can run at a much higher evaporating temperature because no freezing point depressant (FPD) is added prior to the formation of ice; it is hence considered more efficient due to the lowered compression ratio and lessened power for a given cooling duty15,16,17.
There are two other ice production methods: producing ice from supercooled water and putting refrigerant and water in direct contact18,19. The supercooling method involves disturbing the metastable supercooled water to generate ice nucleation and growth. The biggest problem for this method is the unwanted ice formation that can block the system. The direct contact method is considered not suitable for ice pigging because neither refrigerant nor lubrication oil are wanted in the final ice product.
The formation of ice requires heat and mass transfer due to the latent heat of fusion generated in the process. It was first discovered by Osborn Reynolds in 1874 that the transportation of heat and mass in gases are strongly coupled and can be expressed in similar mathematical formulae20. This work formed the pioneering paper on the subject of momentum, heat, and mass transfer in fluids and was reprinted several times21,22. This subject was then studied by a number of others, from both analytical and empirical approaches, for gases, liquids, and molten metal23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33. Aside from the heat and mass transfer, the fluid needs nucleation sites where dendritic ice growth can develop. A modern insight into the growth of ice crystals uses Constructal Law, developed by Adrian Bejan, to explain why ice grows in this way34,35,36.
The ice formation in brine is very different from that in pure water due to the existence of salt. First of all, salt changes the thermodynamics of the fluid and depresses its freezing point. Secondly, salt cannot dissolve in the ice matrix (except for hydrohalite, which can only form when the temperature reaches the eutectic point), and it is rejected to the bulk fluid when ice starts to grow. The rejection of salt was discovered in both sea ice and ice studied in the lab37,38. Since the rejected high-concentration brine is at a temperature well below the freezing point of sea water, as it descends, ice grows at the interface between the flowing brine and the quiescent bulk fluid. These ice stalactites, also named brinicles, were first discovered in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica and were studied experimentally39,40,41,42. In 2011, BBC filmed the formation of brinicles in its Frozen Planet series43,44.
In our lab, it was discovered that by reversing the flowing and quiescent fluids when water is introduced to a bath of cold brine, the water may transform into ice under the correct conditions45. It was found that the location where the water is introduced, flow rheology, and brine temperature and concentration are all key factors influencing how much ice can be produced. The overall goal of this study is to investigate if an ice maker can be developed through this mechanism to generate ice slurries, considering that the elevated evaporator temperature and the high rate of liquid-to-liquid heat transfer can enhance the efficiency of energy usage. This article shares key aspects of the experiment.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>DMA 4500 M</td>
			<td>Anton Paar</td>
			<td>81546022</td>
			<td>Density Metre</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GELATO Chef 2200</td>
			<td>magimix</td>
			<td>0036500504R13</td>
			<td>Ice Cream Maker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>280D</td>
			<td>FREEZE MASTER</td>
			<td>241-1441</td>
			<td>Pipe Freezer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M17.5X2</td>
			<td>BLUE ICE MACHINES</td>
			<td>GK924</td>
			<td>Slushy Puppy Machine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HH68K</td>
			<td>OMEGA</td>
			<td>140045</td>
			<td>Thermometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OHAUS</td>
			<td>TS4KW</td>
			<td>1324</td>
			<td>Scale</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZFC321WA/BNI225</td>
			<td>ZANUSSI</td>
			<td>920672574-00</td>
			<td>Freezer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EIS Heater Matrix</td>
			<td>Vauxhall</td>
			<td>214720041</td>
			<td>Heat Exchanger</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2500LPH</td>
			<td>JBA</td>
			<td>AP-2500</td>
			<td>Pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe</td>
			<td>FORTUNA Optima</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OAT concentrated coolant</td>
			<td>wilko</td>
			<td>P30409014</td>
			<td>Ethylene Glycol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pure dried vacuum salt</td>
			<td>INEOS Enterprise</td>
			<td>1433324</td>
			<td>NaCl Salt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methylated Spirits</td>
			<td>Barrettine</td>
			<td>1170</td>
			<td>Methanol&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed that, under the proper conditions, ice can be produced when water is introduced to a bath of cold brine. To make ice form, in addition to having the brine and water mix, the rate of heat transfer must bypass that of mass transfer. When water is introduced in the form of tiny droplets to the brine surface, the mode of heat and mass transfer is by diffusion. The buoyancy stops water from mixing with the brine underneath, but as the ice grows thicker, it slows down the rate of heat transfer, making ice more difficult to grow as a result. When water is introduced inside the brine in the form of a flow, a number of factors are found to influence how much ice can form. Brine temperature and concentration, which are the driving forces of heat and mass transfer, respectively, can affect the water-to-ice conversion ratio; lower bath temperatures and brine concentrations encourage more ice to form. The flow rheology, which can directly affect both the heat and mass transfer coefficients, is also a key factor. In addition, the flow rheology changes the area of contact of the flow with the bulk fluid.

Figure 1 compares the effects of water introduced at the brine surface to water injected through the brine. In the &#34;ice-cap&#34; scenario, the formed ice is solid because the water did not mix much with the bulk fluid. The temperature and density difference between the two fluids generates buoyancy force on the water and prevents them from mixing. Both fluids are static (i.e., the heat transfer is much greater than that of the mass; Sc &#8776; 500, Pr &#8776;...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine at JoVE.com

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Here, we present a protocol to demonstrate the generation of ice when water is introduced to a cold bath of brine, as a secondary refrigerant, at a range of temperatures well below the freezing point of water. It can be used as an alternative way of producing ice for industry.

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

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