Name: preparation of graphene liquid cells for the observation of lithium-ion battery material
Uploaded: 2019-02-05T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), grant no. 2014R1A4A1003712 (BRL Program), the Korea CCS R&amp;D Center (KCRC) grant funded by the Korea government (Ministry of Science, ICT &amp; Future Planning) (No. NRF-2014M1A8A1049303), an End-Run grant from KAIST funded by the Korea government in 2016 (Ministry of Science, ICT &amp; Future Planning) (N11160058), the Wearable Platform Materials Technology Center (WMC) (NR-2016R1A5A1009926), an National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2017H1A2A1042006-Global Ph.D. Fellowship Program), a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP; Ministry of Science, ICT &amp; Future Planning) (NRF-2018R1C1B6002624), the Nano&#183;Material Technology Development Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, and an ICT and Future Planning (2009-0082580) and NRF grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP; Ministry of Science, ICT &amp; Future Planning) (NRF-2018R1C1B6002624).

1. Synthesis of SnO2 Nanotubes by Electrospinning and Subsequent Heat Treatment17
<ol>
	<li>Prepare an electrospinning solution.
	<ol>
		<li>Dissolve 0.25 g of tin chloride dihydrate in a solvent mixture of 1.25 g of ethanol and 1.25 g of dimethylformamide (DMF) at room temperature (RT, 25 &#176;C).</li>
		<li>After stirring for 2 h, add 0.35 g of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) to the electrospinning solution and stir the mixture for another 6 h.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform an electro...

<ol>
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H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+realization+of+complete+conversion+and+agglomeration+dynamics+of+SnO2nanoparticles+in+liquid+electrolyte.">Direct realization of complete conversion and agglomeration dynamics of SnO2nanoparticles in liquid electrolyte.</a> ACS Omega. 2 (10), 6329-6336 (2017).</li><li>Cheong, J. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Situ+High-Resolution+Transmission+Electron+Microscopy+(TEM)+Observation+of+SnNanoparticles+on+SnO2+Nanotubes+Under+Lithiation.">In Situ High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Observation of SnNanoparticles on SnO2 Nanotubes Under Lithiation.</a> Microscopy Microanalysis. 23 (6), 1107-1115 (2017).</li><li>Cheong, J. 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There are critical steps within the protocol. First, the transfer of the graphene onto the TEM grid needs the researchers&#39; careful attention. It is important to handle the grids with tweezers and not damage any of grids, for instance by destroying the amorphous carbon membrane or bending the frame. These kinds of damages will result in a poor coverage of the graphene and affect the number of liquid pockets. In addition, placing the upper grid at the right position is critical. As described in the protocol, the top gr...

Recently, the consumption of energy has constantly increased, as well as the importance of high-performance energy storage devices. To meet such a demand, the development of lithium-ion batteries that have a high energy density, durability, and safety is necessary1,2. In order to develop batteries with superior properties, a fundamental understanding of energy storage mechanisms during battery operation is essential3,4,5.
In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) provides rich insights as it can show both structural and chemical information during the operation of batteries3. Among many in situ TEM techniques, GLCs have been used for the observation of the lithiation dynamics of nanomaterials6,7,8,9,10,11,12. GLCs consist of a liquid pocket sealed by two graphene membranes, which provide an actual electrode/electrolyte interface by preventing the evaporation of the liquid inside the high vacuum in a TEM column6,7. The advantages of GLCs are that they allow a superior spatial resolution and high imaging contrast because they employ electron transparent monatomic-thick graphene as liquid sealing membrane13,14,15,16. Also, conventional TEM can be applicable to observe the battery reactions, without using expensive in situ TEM holders.
In this text, we introduce how the lithiation reaction can be observed with GLCs. Specifically, electron beam irradiation produces solvated electrons inside the liquid electrolyte, and they initiate lithiation by separating Li ions from solvent molecules.
GLCs also serve as the most optimal platform to allow the direct observation of nanomaterials with various morphologies, including nanoparticles6,9, nanotubes7,10,11, and even multidimensional materials12. Together with the ex situ TEM analysis of electrode materials after the actual electrochemical cell testing, it is possible that the GLC system presented here can be used to investigate the fundamental reaction mechanism.
With such advantages of GLCs and ex situ experiments, we introduce here detailed experiment methods for researchers who are willing to carry out similar GLC experiments. The protocols cover 1) the synthesis of tin (IV) oxide (SnO2) nanotubes as the typical one-dimensional nanostructured electrode materials, 2) the electrochemical battery cell test, 3) the preparation of GLC, and 4) the performance of a real-time TEM observation.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1340px;" width="1340">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:373px;">Tin chloride dihyrate</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 10025-69-1</td>
			<td style="width:583px;">In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 64-17-5</td>
			<td>In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Dimethylformamide</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 68-12-2</td>
			<td>In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Polyvinylpyrrolidone</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 9003-39-8</td>
			<td>In a plastic bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Cell tester</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">KOREA THERMO-TECH</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Maccor Series 4000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Cell tester 2</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">WonaTech</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">WBCS4000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Sodium perchlorate</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 7601-89-0</td>
			<td>In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">25 gauge needle</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Hwa-In Science Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:373px;">1.3 M of lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) dissolved in EC/DEC with 10 wt% of FEC</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">PANAX ETEC</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td>In a stainless steel bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Propylene carbonate</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 108-32-7</td>
			<td>In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Super P Carbon Black</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Alfa-Aesar</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">CAS 1333-86-4</td>
			<td>In a glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:373px;">Cell components (bottom cell, top cell, separator, gasket, spring, spacer)</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Wellcos Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Cell punch</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Wellcos Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:373px;">Glove Box</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Moisture Oxygen Technology (MOTEK)</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Box Furnace</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Naytech</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Vulcan 3-550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Electrospinning device</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">NanoNC</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Hydrofluoric acid</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Junsei</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">84045-0350</td>
			<td>85%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Cu foil</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Alfaaesar</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">38381</td>
			<td>Copper Thinfoil, 0.0125mm thick, 99.9%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Holy carbon Au grid</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">SPI</td>
			<td>Quantifoil R2/2 Micromachined Holey Carbon Grids, 300 Mesh Gold</td>
			<td>Quantifoil R2/2 Micromachined Holey Carbon Grids, 300 Mesh Gold</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Isoprophyl alchol</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigmaaldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">W292907</td>
			<td>99.70%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Ammonium persulfate</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Sigmaaldrich</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">248614</td>
			<td>98%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Transmission electron microscope (TEM)</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">JEOL</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">JEOL JEM 3010</td>
			<td>300 kV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Chemical vapor depistion (CVD)</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Scientech</td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Charge coupled device (CCD)</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Gatan</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Orius SC200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Plasma Cleaner</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">Femtoscience</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">VITA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:373px;">Electrospinning program</td>
			<td style="width:184px;">NanoNC</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">NanoNC eS- robot</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation of graphene liquid cells for the observation of lithium-ion battery material

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between two graphene sheets, and the facile synthesis of one-dimensional nanostructures using electrospinning. The GLC enables in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the lithiation dynamics of electrode materials. The in situ GLC-TEM using an electron beam for both imaging and lithiation can utilize not only realistic battery electrolytes, but also the high-resolution imaging of various morphological, phase, and interfacial transitions.

SnO2 nanotubes were fabricated by electrospinning and subsequent calcination, during which the nanotubular and porous structures could be seen clearly, according to the SEM image (Figure 3a). Such a nanotubular structure comes from the decomposition of PVP, while the Sn precursor in the core is moved outward due to the Kirkendall effect17,18. Additionally, Ostwald ripening ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material at JoVE.com

Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material

Here, we present a protocol for the fabrication and preparation of a graphene liquid cell for in situ transmission electron microscopy observation, along with a synthesis of electrode materials and electrochemical battery cell tests.

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between ...

This graphene liquid cell enables transmission electron microscopy for these dynamics in a liquid electrolyte. Such dynamics can provide rich information of the working mechanisms of Lithium-ion batteries and contributes to designing advanced battery devices. The advantages of graphene liquid cell is that it allows TEM imaging in liquid electrolyte providing good spatial resolution and high imaging contrast.In addition to a superior quality of the image, it can also provide information of various morphological phase and interfacial transitions. With only a written protocol, it is difficult to follow this method because many technical steps are conducted by hand. A lot of the skills require accuracy and precision, where the use of patience is highly recommended.Even though you follow every protocol correctly, you can still fail the experiment because handling graphene and the graphene transfer grids is difficult. To begin, prepare the electrospinning solution as described in the accompanying text protocol. Transfer it into a ten milliliter syringe and equip the syringe with a 25 gauge needle.Then wash the target. Take a rectangular piece of flexible stainless steel and wash it with deionized water, followed by ethanol. Repeat this process two to five times.Once clean, air dry the steel at 60 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. Once dry, fix the flexible stainless steel onto the drummer with tape. Next, open the electrospinning controller software and enter a flow rate of 10 microliters per minute, requiring a total solution volume of five milliliters.Fix the syringe with the 25 gauge needle into the electrospinning device and use tape to fix it in place. Now press the syringe towards the collector until the electrospinning solution flows well through the 25 gauge needle. Then connect the tip of the needle to the double-ended crocodile clips which are also connected to the collector.Before initiating the electrospinning program, turn on the roller and spin the collector at 100 rpm. Then initiate the electrospinning program software. When the spinning begins, modulate the applied voltage to 16 kilovolts so that the Taylor cone forms.When the electrospinning process is finished, scrap the as-spun nanofibers on the flexible stainless steel with a razor and transfer them into an alumina box. Then insert the alumina box into the box furnace and set the heat treatment conditions for the box furnace. After calcination, cool down the furnace to 50 degrees Celsius and then transfer the calcined nanotubes to a glass vial.To begin, prepare the electrode slurry. Place it on the top side of the copper foil on the glass substrate and cast it evenly to a thickness of around 60 microns using a casting roller. Then air dry the slurry cast foil at 60 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes.Once dry, seal it inside a plastic bag until ready for cell assembly. To begin cell assembly, heat a convection oven to 150 degrees Celsius and place the slurry cast copper foil into the oven. Pull the vacuum in the oven using a rotary pump to dry the residual solvent in the slurry while avoiding oxidation of the copper foil.After heating the slurry cast copper foil at 150 degrees Celsius for two hours, refill the convection oven with air by closing the vacuum line and opening the vent line in the rotary pump to open the chamber. Then take the slurry cast copper foil out of the chamber and punch it with a circle puncher. Weigh the punched slurry cast copper foil.Use half a cell for the assembly of the battery cells and place the slurry cast copper foil into the bottom of the battery cell. Then transfer the samples to the ante-chamber of the glove box. Vacuum the ante-chamber for 30 minutes and then transfer the samples to the inside glove box.In the glove box, assemble the battery cells, starting with the bottom battery cell, then the slurry cast copper foil, the separator, the gasket, the spacer, the spring, and finally, the top battery cell. Use a compactor to compress the battery cell into a complete battery cell. Then move the battery cells into the ante-chamber of the glove box.Once the vacuum has been released, remove the battery cells from the glove box. Age the battery at room temperature for one to two days. Then insert the cells in the battery cell tester.Calculate the appropriate current and then apply the proper current for each battery cell using the battery cell tester program. To begin, synthesize graphene by chemical vapor deposition and use a pair of scissors to cut the copper foil with the graphene to three by three millimeter squares. Place four copper foil pieces between two glass slides and press to make them flat.Next place fully carbon gold grids on each piece of copper foil. Drop 20 microliters of isopropyl alcohol on the gold grid copper foil combo. Then remove the alcohol and dry the sample at 50 degrees Celsius for five minutes.Next clean a six centimeter glass Petri dish with isopropyl alcohol and deionized water to avoid contamination with silicon particles. Then add ten milliliters of 0.1 molar ammonium persulfate to the dish and etch the copper foil. Incubate the sample in the solution for six hours.Use a platinum loop to move the gold grids to a glass Petri dish filled with deionized water and heat it to 50 degrees Celsius in order to fully remove any remaining contaminants from the etched. Then remove the grids and dry them for six hours at room temperature. Prepare the electrolyte and nanotube mixture by dispersing 0.06 grams of the nanotube powder in 10 milliliters of electrolyte, which is composed of 1.3 molar lithium hexafluorophospate and ethylene carbonate and diethylene carbonate in a three to seven volume ratio with 10 weight percent of fluoroethylene carbonate.Then move the graphene transferred grids and the electrolyte mixture into a glove box that is filled with argon. To assemble the cell, first place one grid on the bottom. Then drop 20 microliters of the electrolyte mixture on the bottom grid.Quickly use a pair of tweezers to place another grid on top of the bottom grid before the electrolyte dries. Dry the sample inside the glove box for 30 minutes, during which the liquid is spontaneously encapsulated between the two graphene sheets as it dries. The tin iv oxide nanotubes fabricated by electrospinning and subsequent calcination are shown here in an SEM image.TEM shows that such porous sites are more visually clear, indicated by a number of white spots within the nanotubes. This is because the crystal structures of tin iv oxide are polycrystalline cassiterite structures. In terms of electrochemical characteristics of the tin iv oxide nanotubes, the charge and discharge profile exhibits stable voltage profiles with an initial coulombic efficiency of 67.8%The voltage plateau, which exists at 0.9 volts, can be attributed to the two phase reaction.The tin iv oxide nanotubes exhibit stable cycling at 500 milliamps per gram with coulombic efficiencies above 98%In addition, the nanotubes retain considerable capacity, even at a high current density of 1, 000 milliamps per gram. A time series TEM video of graphene liquid cells shows at the multiple liquid pockets whose sizes range from 300-400 nanometers. Through constant electron beam irradiation, dissolved electrons and radicals trigger a secondary reaction with a salt and solvent.Here the decomposition of electrolyte and the formation of a SEI layer were observed at the initial stage. Take extra care when handling graphene and TEM grid. If you don't handle graphene and grid properly, they can be easily damaged.In the cell assembly, it is important to compress the cell tightly so that the electrolyte does not come out of the cells. This procedure can also be utilized in observing dynamics of sodium-ion batteries, magnesium-ion batteries, and secondary-ion batteries.

preparation-graphene-liquid-cells-for-observation-lithium-ion-battery

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Construction and Testing of Coin Cells of Lithium Ion Batteries

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime. Lithium ion batteries have also been considered to be used in electric and hybrid vehicles1 or even electrical grid stabilization systems2. All these applications simulate a dramatic increase in the research and development of battery materials3-7, including new materials3,8, doping9, nanostructuring10-13, coatings or surface modifications14-17 and novel binders18. Consequently, an increasing number of physicists, chemists and materials scientists have recently ventured into this area. Coin cells are widely used in research laboratories to test new battery materials; even for the research and development that target large-scale and high-power applications, small coin cells are often used to test the capacities and rate capabilities of new materials in the initial stage. 
 In 2010, we started a National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored research project to investigate the surface adsorption and disordering in battery materials (grant no. DMR-1006515). In the initial stage of this project, we have struggled to learn the techniques of assembling and testing coin cells, which cannot be achieved without numerous help of other researchers in other universities (through frequent calls, email exchanges and two site visits). Thus, we feel that it is beneficial to document, by both text and video, a protocol of assembling and testing a coin cell, which will help other new researchers in this field. This effort represents the "Broader Impact" activities of our NSF project, and it will also help to educate and inspire students.
In this video article, we document a protocol to assemble a CR2032 coin cell with a LiCoO2 working electrode, a Li counter electrode, and (the mostly commonly used) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. To ensure new learners to readily repeat the protocol, we keep the protocol as specific and explicit as we can. However, it is important to note that in specific research and development work, many parameters adopted here can be varied. First, one can make coin cells of different sizes and test the working electrode against a counter electrode other than Li. Second, the amounts of C black and binder added into the working electrodes are often varied to suit the particular purpose of research; for example, large amounts of C black or even inert powder were added to the working electrode to test the "intrinsic" performance of cathode materials14. Third, better binders (other than PVDF) have also developed and used18. Finally, other types of electrolytes (instead of LiPF6) can also be used; in fact, certain high-voltage electrode materials will require the uses of special electrolytes7.

A protocol to construct and test coin cells of lithium ion batteries is described. The specific procedures of making a working electrode, preparing a counter electrode, assembling a cell inside a glovebox and testing the cell are presented.

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime.  Lithium ion ...

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen 1-7. The performance of SOFCs and the rates of many chemical and energy transformation processes in energy storage and conversion devices in general are limited primarily by charge and mass transfer along electrode surfaces and across interfaces. Unfortunately, the mechanistic understanding of these processes is still lacking, due largely to the difficulty of characterizing these processes under in situ conditions. This knowledge gap is a chief obstacle to SOFC commercialization. The development of tools for probing and mapping surface chemistries relevant to electrode reactions is vital to unraveling the mechanisms of surface processes and to achieving rational design of new electrode materials for more efficient energy storage and conversion2. Among the relatively few in situ surface analysis methods, Raman spectroscopy can be performed even with high temperatures and harsh atmospheres, making it ideal for characterizing chemical processes relevant to SOFC anode performance and degradation8-12. It can also be used alongside electrochemical measurements, potentially allowing direct correlation of electrochemistry to surface chemistry in an operating cell. Proper in situ Raman mapping measurements would be useful for pin-pointing important anode reaction mechanisms because of its sensitivity to the relevant species, including anode performance degradation through carbon deposition8, 10, 13, 14 ("coking") and sulfur poisoning11, 15 and the manner in which surface modifications stave off this degradation16. The current work demonstrates significant progress towards this capability. In addition, the family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques provides a special approach to interrogate the electrode surface with nanoscale resolution. Besides the surface topography that is routinely collected by AFM and STM, other properties such as local electronic states, ion diffusion coefficient and surface potential can also be investigated17-22. In this work, electrochemical measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and SPM were used in conjunction with a novel test electrode platform that consists of a Ni mesh electrode embedded in an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte. Cell performance testing and impedance spectroscopy under fuel containing H2S was characterized, and Raman mapping was used to further elucidate the nature of sulfur poisoning. In situ Raman monitoring was used to investigate coking behavior. Finally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) were used to further visualize carbon deposition on the nanoscale. From this research, we desire to produce a more complete picture of the SOFC anode.

We present a unique platform for characterizing electrode surfaces in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that allows simultaneous performance of multiple characterization techniques (e.g. in situ Raman spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy alongside electrochemical measurements). Complementary information from these analyses may help to advance toward a more profound understanding of electrode reaction and degradation mechanisms, providing insights into rational design of better materials for SOFCs.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. During insertion or removal of alkali metal ions, the redox states of transition metals in the compounds change and structural transformations such as phase transitions and/or lattice parameter increases or decreases occur. These behaviors in turn determine important characteristics of the batteries such as the potential profiles, rate capabilities, and cycle lives. The extremely bright and tunable x-rays produced by synchrotron radiation allow rapid acquisition of high-resolution data that provide information about these processes. Transformations in the bulk materials, such as phase transitions, can be directly observed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), while X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) gives information about the local electronic and geometric structures (e.g.&#160;changes in redox states and bond lengths). In situ experiments carried out on operating cells are particularly useful because they allow direct correlation between the electrochemical and structural properties of the materials. These experiments are time-consuming and can be challenging to design due to the reactivity and air-sensitivity of the alkali metal anodes used in the half-cell configurations, and/or the possibility of signal interference from other cell components and hardware. For these reasons, it is appropriate to carry out ex situ experiments (e.g.&#160;on electrodes harvested from partially charged or cycled cells) in some cases. Here, we present detailed protocols for the preparation of both ex situ and in situ samples for experiments involving synchrotron radiation and demonstrate how these experiments are done.

We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of devices

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. ...

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric vehicles.1,2 However, many challenges, such as energy density and battery lifetimes, need to be overcome before this particular battery technology can be widely implemented in such applications.3 This research is challenging, and we outline a method to address these challenges using in situ NPD to probe the crystal structure of electrodes undergoing electrochemical cycling (charge/discharge) in a battery. NPD data help determine the underlying structural mechanism responsible for a range of electrode properties, and this information can direct the development of better electrodes and batteries.
We briefly review six types of battery designs custom-made for NPD experiments and detail the method to construct the &#8216;roll-over&#8217; cell that we have successfully used on the high-intensity NPD instrument, WOMBAT, at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO). The design considerations and materials used for cell construction are discussed in conjunction with aspects of the actual in situ NPD experiment and initial directions are presented on how to analyze such complex in situ data.

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

We describe the design and construction of an electrochemical cell for the examination of electrode materials using in situ neutron powder diffraction (NPD). We briefly comment on alternate in situ NPD cell designs and discuss methods for the analysis of the corresponding in situ NPD data produced using this cell.

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric ...

Characterization of Full Set Material Constants and Their Temperature Dependence for Piezoelectric Materials Using Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy

During the operation of high power electromechanical devices, a temperature rise is unavoidable due to mechanical and electrical losses, causing the degradation of device performance. In order to evaluate such degradations using computer simulations, full matrix material properties at elevated temperatures are needed as inputs. It is extremely difficult to measure such data for ferroelectric materials due to their strong anisotropic nature and property variation among samples of different geometries. Because the degree of depolarization is boundary condition dependent, data obtained by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) impedance resonance technique, which requires several samples with drastically different geometries, usually lack self-consistency. The resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS) technique allows the full set material constants to be measured using only one sample, which can eliminate errors caused by sample to sample variation. A detailed RUS procedure is demonstrated here using a lead zirconate titanate (PZT-4) piezoceramic sample. In the example, the complete set of material constants was measured from room temperature to 120 &#176;C. Measured free dielectric constants <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53461/image001.jpg" /> and&#160;<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/53461/image002.jpg" /> were compared with calculated ones based on the measured full set data, and piezoelectric constants d15 and d33 were also calculated using different formulas. Excellent agreement was found in the entire range of temperatures, which confirmed the self-consistency of the data set obtained by the RUS.

This protocol describes the procedure of measuring the temperature dependence of the full set material constants of piezoelectric materials using resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS).

During the operation of high power electromechanical devices, a temperature rise is unavoidable due to mechanical and electrical losses, causing the ...

Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational analysis. Testing of lithium-ion batteries in an academic setting has taken on several forms, but at the most basic level lies the coin cell construction. In traditional LIB electrode preparation, a multi-phase slurry composed of active material, binder, and conductive additive is cast out onto a substrate. An electrode disc can then be punched from the dried sheet and used in the construction of a coin cell for electrochemical evaluation. Utilization of the potential of the active material in a battery is critically dependent on the microstructure of the electrode, as an appropriate distribution of the primary components are crucial to ensuring optimal electrical conductivity, porosity, and tortuosity, such that electrochemical and transport interaction is optimized. Processing steps ranging from the combination of dry powder, wet mixing, and drying can all critically affect multi-phase interactions that influence the microstructure formation. Electrochemical probing necessitates the construction of electrodes and coin cells with the utmost care and precision. This paper aims at providing a step-by-step guide of non-aqueous electrode processing and coin cell construction for lithium-ion batteries within an academic setting and with emphasis on deciphering the influence of drying and calendaring.

Non-aqueous electrode processing is central to the construction of coin cells and the evaluation of new electrode chemistries for lithium-ion batteries. A step-by-step guide to the basic practices needed as an electrochemical engineer working with batteries in an academic experimental setting is furnished.

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational ...

Experimental Methods for Investigation of Shape Memory Based Elastocaloric Cooling Processes and Model Validation

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor compression based cooling process. Nickel-Titanium (Ni-Ti) based alloy systems, especially, show large elastocaloric effects. Furthermore, exhibit large latent heats which is a necessary material property for the development of an efficient solid-state based cooling process. A scientific test rig has been designed to investigate these processes and the elastocaloric effects in SMAs. The realized test rig enables independent control of an SMA&#39;s mechanical loading and unloading cycles, as well as conductive heat transfer between SMA cooling elements and a heat source/sink. The test rig is equipped with a comprehensive monitoring system capable of synchronized measurements of mechanical and thermal parameters. In addition to determining the process-dependent mechanical work, the system also enables measurement of thermal caloric aspects of the elastocaloric cooling effect through use of a high-performance infrared camera. This combination is of particular interest, because it allows illustrations of localization and rate effects &#8212; both important for efficient heat transfer from the medium to be cooled.
The work presented describes an experimental method to identify elastocaloric material properties in different materials and sample geometries. Furthermore, the test rig is used to investigate different cooling process variations. The introduced analysis methods enable a differentiated consideration of material, process and related boundary condition influences on the process efficiency. The comparison of the experimental data with the simulation results (of a thermomechanically coupled finite element model) allows for better understanding of the underlying physics of the elastocaloric effect. In addition, the experimental results, as well as the findings based on the simulation results, are used to improve the material properties.

Experimental methods for investigation of solid state cooling processes and characterization of elastocaloric material properties of Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are presented. A custom-built test rig has been designed for controlling and comprehensive monitoring of elastocaloric cooling processes. Furthermore, it provides a validation platform for thermomechanically coupled modeling approaches.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. However, a number of setbacks prevent their integration into commercial devices. The main limiting factor is due to nanoscale phenomena occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces, ultimately leading to degradation of battery operation. These key problems are highly challenging to observe and characterize as these batteries contain multiple buried interfaces. One approach for direct observation of interfacial phenomena in thin film batteries is through the fabrication of electrochemically active nanobatteries by a focused ion beam (FIB). As such, a reliable technique to fabricate nanobatteries was developed and demonstrated in recent work. Herein, a detailed protocol with a step-by-step process is presented to enable the reproduction of this nanobattery fabrication process. In particular, this technique was applied to a thin film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LiPON/a-Si, and has further been previously demonstrated by in situ cycling within a transmission electron microscope.

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is presented.

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...

Preparation of Liquid Crystal Networks for Macroscopic Oscillatory Motion Induced by Light

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous light irradiation. The photo-excitation of dopants that can quickly dissipate light into heat, coupled with anisotropic thermal expansion and self-shadowing of the film, gives rise to the self-sustained deformation. The oscillations observed are influenced by the dimensions and the modulus of the film, and by the directionality and intensity of the light. The system developed offers applications in energy conversion and harvesting for soft-robotics and automated systems.
The general method described here consists of creating free-standing liquid crystalline films and characterizing the mechanical and thermal effects observed. The molecular alignment is achieved using alignment layers (rubbed polyimide), commonly used in the display manufacturing industry. To obtain actuators with large deformation, the mesogens are aligned and polymerized in a splay/bend configuration, i.e., with the director of the liquid crystals (LCs) going gradually from planar to homeotropic through the film thickness. Upon irradiation, the mechanical and thermal oscillations obtained are monitored with a high-speed camera. The results are further quantified by image analysis using an image processing program.

The goal of the protocol is to create liquid crystalline polymer films that can mechanically oscillate under continuous light irradiation. We describe in great detail the conception of free-standing films, from the liquid crystal alignment method to the photo-actuation. The experimental protocol applied to prepare this material is broadly applicable.

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous ...

Three-electrode Coin Cell Preparation and Electrodeposition Analytics for Lithium-ion Batteries

As lithium-ion batteries find use in high energy and power applications, such as in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, monitoring the degradation and subsequent safety issues becomes increasingly important. In a Li-ion cell setup, the voltage measurement across the positive and negative terminals inherently includes the effect of the cathode and anode which are coupled and sum to the total cell performance. Accordingly, the ability to monitor the degradation aspects associated with a specific electrode is extremely difficult because the electrodes are fundamentally coupled. A three-electrode setup can overcome this problem. By introducing a third (reference) electrode, the influence of each electrode can be decoupled, and the electrochemical properties can be measured independently. The reference electrode (RE) must have a stable potential that can then be calibrated against a known reference, for example, lithium metal. The three-electrode cell can be used to run electrochemical tests such as cycling, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Three-electrode cell EIS measurements can elucidate the contribution of individual electrode impedance to the full cell. In addition, monitoring the anode potential allows the detection of electrodeposition due to lithium plating, which can cause safety concerns. This is especially important for the fast charging of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles. In order to monitor and characterize the safety and degradation aspects of an electrochemical cell, a three-electrode setup can prove invaluable. This paper aims to provide a guide to constructing a three-electrode coin cell setup using the 2032-coin cell architecture, which is easy to produce, reliable, and cost-effective.

Three-electrode cells are useful in studying the electrochemistry of lithium-ion batteries. Such an electrochemical setup allows the phenomena associated with the cathode and anode to be decoupled and examined independently. Here, we present a guide for construction and use of a three-electrode coin cell with emphasis on lithium plating analytics.

As lithium-ion batteries find use in high energy and power applications, such as in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, monitoring the degradation and ...