Name: training dogs for awake, unrestrained functional magnetic resonance imaging
Uploaded: 2019-10-13T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Training Dogs for Awake, Unrestrained Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging at JoVE.com

We are grateful to Canine Performance Sciences and Auburn University Departments of Psychology and Electrical &#38; Computer Engineering. This work was supported by the Association of Professional Dog Trainers.

Ethical approval for these methods was obtained from the Auburn University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and all methods were performed in accordance with their guidelines and regulations. For auditory exposure, progression through the sessions is based on week number. For stationing sessions, a specific session-specified performance criterion (e.g., at least eleven-second duration of chin targeting), must be met before the trainer may advance the dog to the next session in that training phase. Otherwise, t...

<ol>
	<li>T&#243;th, L., G&#225;csi, M., Mikl&#243;si, &. #. 1. 9. 3. ;., Bogner, P., Repa, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Awake+dog+brain+magnetic+resonance+imaging.">Awake dog brain magnetic resonance imaging.</a> Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 4 (2), (2009).</li><li>Berns, G. S., Brooks, A. 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S., Brooks, A., Spivak, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replicability+and+Heterogeneity+of+Awake+Unrestrained+Canine+fMRI+Responses.">Replicability and Heterogeneity of Awake Unrestrained Canine fMRI Responses.</a> PLoS One. 8 (12), e81698 (2013).</li><li>Cook, P., Prichard, A., Spivak, M., Berns, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jealousy+in+dogs?+Evidence+from+brain+imaging.">Jealousy in dogs? Evidence from brain imaging.</a> Animal Sentience. 117, 1-15 (2018).</li><li>Cook, P. F., Brooks, A., Spivak, M., Berns, G. 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D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Awake+fMRI+reveals+a+specialized+region+in+dog+temporal+cortex+for+face+processing.">Awake fMRI reveals a specialized region in dog temporal cortex for face processing.</a> PeerJ. 3, e1115 (2015).</li><li>Prichard, A., Chhibber, R., Athanassiades, K., Spivak, M., Berns, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+neural+learning+in+dogs:+A+multimodal+sensory+fMRI+study.">Fast neural learning in dogs: A multimodal sensory fMRI study.</a> Scientific Reports. 8 (1), 14614 (2018).</li><li>Prichard, A., Cook, P. F., Spivak, M., Chhibber, R., Berns, G. 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The protocol described above separates the training of the stationing (chin rest) behavior from desensitization to the MRI environment. Further, it utilizes a generalization procedure of stationing in several dissimilar locations, to assist in the transfer of the stationing behavior to the real MRI scan environment; it does so without the need for extensive training time in the MRI scan environment, which can be expensive. Overall, the training and testing was completed in 14 hours and resulted in immediate transfer to n...

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) conducted on unrestrained awake dogs is a new method, creating a fresh way to examine function and structure in the dog brain. The first published accounts of MR image acquisition from unrestrained awake dogs were published in 2009 (structural) and 2012 (functional)1,2. There are several advantages of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) for studying brain function in unrestrained awake dogs. First, the data collection is similar to that of humans, and therefore more readily generalizable across species3. Second, there is no need for anesthesia, eliminating any undesirable aftereffects. Third, brain activity is altered by anesthesia and hence cognitive function can be better assessed without anesthesia4. Fourth, while fluid/food deprivation and physical restraint allow researchers to probe nonsedated animals (e.g., rodent, avian, and primate models), those animals can be in very different cognitive states from their non-deprived and unrestrained counterparts3.
At the moment, there are five laboratories around the world that are scanning awake dogs (Atlanta, USA; Auburn, USA; Budapest, Hungary; Quer&#233;taro, Mexico; Vienna, Austria), and there is no standardized method for training dogs to willfully undergo an MRI scan5,6,7. All the training methods share the common goal of training dogs to remain still for extended periods of time, which is necessary for quality brain scans. While all methods work via the principles of reinforcement learning, how exactly it is implemented varies, and we do not yet know the impact of this variance on the results. Therefore, if a proposed training method is accepted and comes to be widely used, it may reduce some amount of undesirable variance in the data. In this article, we focus on the training method for stationing in the MRI scanner. MRI scanning is expensive, and the proposed method we developed has the purpose of being cost-effective and thus generalizable to trainers around the world without regular access to an MRI scanner for training.
The method consists of two major components: training and testing. Training consists of two phases. Phase one is training the dog to chin target (i.e., station) in an open environment and phase two is training the dog to station in a mock MRI. Desensitization to the MRI occurs throughout the training phases, during separate, dedicated Auditory Exposure sessions. Testing consists of stationing in a portable mock MRI, in five different testing locations. The utility of this testing phase is to generalize the stationing behavior, facilitating transfer to the real MRI environment. The overall protocol is summarized in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60192/60192fig1a.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Protocol timeline. The protocol timeline is divided into two components, Training and Testing. Training is further divided into two phases, Open Environment and Mock MRI. Separate Auditory Exposure sessions occur during training as well. Testing consists of stationing in a portable mock MRI, in five different transfer locations (T1-T5). Once the dog has generalized the stationing behavior to criterion in five distinct transfer locations, the dog is ready for data collection in the real MRI environment. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60192/60192fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Depending on the phase, training and testing takes 25 to 75 minutes per week, per dog: one 10-minute Auditory Exposure session and two or more 5 to 30-minute Stationing sessions. This protocol can be completed in 25 weeks. During transfer testing, dogs execute several bouts of a 5-minute motionless down/stay and chin rest in a portable mock MRI (bore, radiofrequency coil, 90+ dB audio, ear padding) in five dissimilar locations. Transfer sessions occur once per week for 30-60 minutes, over five consecutive weeks. During MRI testing, dogs execute several bouts of the final stationing behavior during a 60-minute session of structural and functional data acquisition in a real MRI scanner.
Throughout training and testing, a chin rest is the behavior of focus. A chin rest is the dog touching his chin to an object&#39;s surface following some cue to target (i.e., rest his chin) to that surface. That cue to target can be physical (e.g., gesture, lure), verbal (e.g., spoken word &#34;rest&#34;), or an object (e.g., access to the chin rest itself). Fluent performance of the chin targeting behavior is critical to limiting head motion. In this protocol, the chin rest behavior is conditioned, maintained, and generalized to occur in multiple contexts (different rest apparatuses, in multiple locations) with increasing target duration (up to five minutes). Additionally, the trainer conditions and maintains strong performance of behaviors down and stay, as well as good stimulus control over the release cue &#34;Okay,&#34; the conditioned reinforcer and behavioral event marker &#34;click,&#34; and the Keep Going Signal (KGS) &#34;good&#34;8. Over the course of the protocol, multiple stimuli and apparatuses are introduced at specific stages and for specific intervals. These materials are easily and inexpensively procured. For full details, see the Table of Materials.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylic Mock Radiofrequency Coil</td>
			<td>Menards</td>
			<td>TU59018594</td>
			<td>Mock Radiofrequency (RF) Coil: 8&#34; diameter x 4&#39; Concrete Form Tube. Makes four mock RF coils; cut form tube in four even lengths for four 8&#34; diameter x 1&#39; mock RF coils.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agility Tunnel</td>
			<td>J&#38;J Dog Supplies</td>
			<td>TT053</td>
			<td>Open Agility Training Tunnel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bluetooth Speaker</td>
			<td>Sharkk</td>
			<td>SP-SK896WTR-GRY</td>
			<td>Portable Scan Audio Playback: Waterproof Bluetooth Speaker Sharkk 2O IP67 Bluetooth Speaker Outdoor Pool Beach and Shower Portable Wireless Speaker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cardboard Concrete Form Tube</td>
			<td>Menards</td>
			<td>TU10120014</td>
			<td>Stationary Mock MRI Bore: Sonotube 24&#34; diameter x 12&#39; Standard Wall Water-Resistant Concrete Form. Makes two mock bores; cut form tube in half for two 24&#34; diameter x 6&#39; bores.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chuckit Ball</td>
			<td>Chuckit!</td>
			<td>17030</td>
			<td>Toy Reward: Chuckit! Ultra Ball</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Decibel X</td>
			<td>Skypaw</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Decibel meter phone app</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Exercise Mat</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Foam chin rest: cut mat in half lengthwise. Roll up, and secure roll with hot glue. Cut chin-size notch in center with X-ACTO knife. Hot-glue velcro to bottom surface.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Folding Table</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3&#39; x 6&#39; folding table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfiber Car Wax Applicator Pad</td>
			<td>Viking Car Care</td>
			<td>862400</td>
			<td>Viking Car Care Microfiber Applicator Pads</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Natural Balance Treat Log</td>
			<td>Natual Balance</td>
			<td>236020</td>
			<td>Food Reward: E.g., Chicken Formula Dog Food Roll, 3.5-lb roll</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plywood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Platform: 2&#34;x4&#34;x6&#39; length of wood affixed to 3&#39;x6&#39; plywood board. Hot glue exercise mat on plywood board for traction. Braces: 3 4x4x4&#34; cubes cut at 45-degree angle affixed to ends of 1&#34;x4&#34;x3&#39; lengths of wood. Makes 3 braces.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sand Bags</td>
			<td>J&#38;J Dog Supplies</td>
			<td>AG155</td>
			<td>J&#38;J Professional Quality Sandbags x 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Speaker System</td>
			<td>Pioneer Electrics</td>
			<td>HTD645DV</td>
			<td><a href="https://www.pioneerelectronics.com/pio/pe/images/portal/cit_11221/93327312Operating%20Instructions%20S-HTD630.pdf" target="_blank">Stationary Scan Audio Playback: Pioneer HTD645DV 5 Disk DVD Home Theater System with Wireless Surround Speakers. Operating Instructions.</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Towel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>standard towel</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

training dogs for awake, unrestrained functional magnetic resonance imaging

We present a canine functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) training protocol that can be done in a cost-effective manner, with high-energy dogs, for acquisition of functional and structural data. This method of training dogs for awake, unrestrained fMRI employs a generalization procedure of stationing in several dissimilar locations to facilitate transfer of the stationing behavior to the real MRI scan environment; it does so without the need for extensive training time in the MRI scan environment, which can be expensive. Further, this method splits the training of a stationing (i.e., chin rest) behavior from desensitization to the MRI environment (i.e., 100+ decibel scan audio), the latter accomplished during dedicated Auditory Exposure conditioning sessions. The complete training and testing protocol required 14 hours and resulted in immediate transfer to novel locations. We also present examples of canine fMRI data that have been acquired from visual face processing and olfactory discrimination paradigms.

The mean number of repetitions of each session level is listed in Table 1. The complete training and testing protocol required 14 h (M = 13.55 h, range 12-16 h) and consisted of 90 sessions (range 87-93 sessions). Open environment training lasted 4.38 h (range 3-5 h), mock MRI training lasted 5.4 h (range 4.2-6.5 h), and transfer was 2.5 h divided into five 30 min sessions. Maintenance sessions at level 19 were conducted during transfer and are reflected in the complete t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Training Dogs for Awake, Unrestrained Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging at JoVE.com

Training Dogs for Awake, Unrestrained Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on unrestrained awake dogs is a new method with several advantages over imaging with physical or chemical restraint. This protocol introduces a cost-effective training method that minimizes training in the MRI environment, which can be expensive, and maximizes the subject pool available for canine functional MRI.

We present a canine functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) training protocol that can be done in a cost-effective manner, with high-energy dogs, for ...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging conducted in unrestrained dogs is a new method that creates a fresh way of examining function and structure in the dog brain. The method is humane, cost effective, and it works, not only for dogs in this research context, but as a scaffold for other husbandry behavior training programs. The transferring classical counter-conditioning strategies help the dogs to rapidly acclimate a robust stationing behavior to the scanner environment.Because the protocol is cost effective, it is generalizable to trainers around the world without regular access to an MRI scanner. For active, auditory exposure sessions, transport the dog to a familiar indoor training room. And play scan audio at the session's specified volume.After ten seconds, engage in 20 seconds of toy play with the dog while the scanner noise is still audible. After 20 seconds of play, retrieve the toy from the dog and pause the noise. Then wait with the dog in silence without the reward for 10 seconds before starting the next trial.Conduct one session of 10 trials per week for 12 weeks increasing the decibel volume over the sessions throughout the duration of the training period. To capture the chin target to towel with the dog standing, sitting, or in the down position, click, then treat to allow the dog to investigate the towel. Once the dog will investigate the towel reliably, click then treat for any nose to towel and subsequent chin to towel contact until the towel contact duration reaches at least two seconds for up to five minutes per session.When the dog will chin target for at least 26 seconds, click then treat for any investigation of the foam chin rest apparatus. After several reinforced investigations of the apparatus, cue rest and click then treat for one to two seconds of chin contact for five to 15 minutes of training until 40 seconds of contact is achieved. For mock MRI stationing sessions, invite the dog to jump or lift the dog into the mock bore and cue the dog to lie down, clicking then treating.Cue the dog to rest. And click then treat for one to 12 seconds of chin targeting to the foam chin rest in the elevated bore in 5 to 15 minute sessions until the duration increases to 60 seconds. Reinforce less precise approximations of the behavior initially, as the trainer will have the opportunity to selectively reinforce for better alignment precision in later reps.When the dog can chin target in the mock bore for at least 60 seconds, cue down and rest, and outfit the dog with ear padding. Place scan audio at a barely audible volume between zero and 40 decibels. And click then treat for one to 12 seconds of chin contact in 15 to 30 minute training sessions until the duration lasts at least 107 seconds.When the dog can sustain five minutes in down stay in the chin rest in the mock bore and mock RF coil, while wearing ear padding with the scanner noise playing at 80 to 110 decibels, stand or sit beside portable mock bore with the mock RF coil, and gesture to the dog to enter the new bore. Cue down and rest, and outfit the animal with ear padding. Place scan audio at 80 to 110 decibels.And click then treat for 1 to 30 seconds of stationing in the new location. Next probe for the criterion duration, reinforcing at 5 minutes or when the dog breaks. Once the dog has generalized the stationing behavior to criterion in five distinct transfer locations, the dog is ready for data collection in the real MRI environment.Here, the maximum duration of four dogs trained in this protocol, as demonstrated for the last three sessions at the end of training and the different training locations is shown. The performance was stable at the end of stationing training and all of the dogs transferred to the mock training locations with a max duration equivalent to training. Three of the dogs transferred to the MRI scanner and demonstrated repeated bouts of the max possible duration of 206 seconds.The one dog that did not transfer to the MRI scanner had a larger head than the other dogs and could not comfortably fit within the coil, likely contributing to its unwillingness to participate in the scans. Once trained to participate in functional MRI scans, we can glean sensory processing information within several modalities. For example, adjacent but different brain areas at the temporal cortex in the dog brain are active for processing dog and human faces.Green regions represent areas of the brain more active for human faces contrasted with dog faces. While red regions represent areas of the brain more active for dog faces, contrasted with human faces. While the olfactory bulb, periamygdala, anterior olfactory cortex, entorhinal cortex, and piriform lobes are active in both awake and anesthetized dogs, the regions implicating higher order cognitive processing are activated mainly in awake dogs.The protocol is designed around the idea that head motion is incompatible with a robust chin rest behavior, which is generalized to occur in multiple settings. While canine functional MRI is in its naissance stages, the future is promising for the continued use of humanity's best friend in understanding brain behavior relationships. For example, our findings can advance the understanding of how to better select, train, and employ dogs for tasks that benefit society such as detecting hazardous threats like explosives.With the robust method of scanner acclimation, the limitations of the utility of the scanner are bound only by the creativity of the researcher's questions and experimental designs.

training-dogs-for-awake-unrestrained-functional-magnetic-resonance

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and molecular approaches allow the investigation of either different stimuli on few neurons, or one stimulus in large parts of the brain, blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) allows combining both advantages, i.e. compare the neural activation induced by different stimuli in the entire brain at once. fMRI in songbirds is challenging because of the small size of their brains and because their bones and especially their skull comprise numerous air cavities, inducing important susceptibility artifacts. Gradient-echo (GE) BOLD fMRI has been successfully applied to songbirds 1-5 (for a review, see 6). These studies focused on the primary and secondary auditory brain areas, which are regions free of susceptibility artifacts. However, because processes of interest may occur beyond these regions, whole brain BOLD fMRI is required using an MRI sequence less susceptible to these artifacts. This can be achieved by using spin-echo (SE) BOLD fMRI 7,8 . In this article, we describe how to use this technique in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), which are small songbirds with a bodyweight of 15-25 g extensively studied in behavioral neurosciences of birdsong. The main topic of fMRI studies on songbirds is song perception and song learning. The auditory nature of the stimuli combined with the weak BOLD sensitivity of SE (compared to GE) based fMRI sequences makes the implementation of this technique very challenging.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI with Auditory Stimulation in Songbirds

This article shows an optimized procedure for imaging of the neural substrates of auditory stimulation in the songbird brain using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). It describes the preparation of the sound stimuli, the positioning of the subject and the acquisition and subsequent analysis of the fMRI data.

The neurobiology of birdsong, as a model for human speech, is a pronounced area of research in behavioral neuroscience. Whereas electrophysiology and ...

Best Current Practice for Obtaining High Quality EEG Data During Simultaneous fMRI

Simultaneous EEG-fMRI allows the excellent temporal resolution of EEG to be combined with the high spatial accuracy of fMRI. The data from these two modalities can be combined in a number of ways, but all rely on the acquisition of high quality EEG and fMRI data. EEG data acquired during simultaneous fMRI are affected by several artifacts, including the gradient artefact (due to the changing magnetic field gradients required for fMRI), the pulse artefact (linked to the cardiac cycle) and movement artifacts (resulting from movements in the strong magnetic field of the scanner, and muscle activity). Post-processing methods for successfully correcting the gradient and pulse artifacts require a number of criteria to be satisfied during data acquisition. Minimizing head motion during EEG-fMRI is also imperative for limiting the generation of artifacts.
Interactions between the radio frequency (RF) pulses required for MRI and the EEG hardware may occur and can cause heating. This is only a significant risk if safety guidelines are not satisfied. Hardware design and set-up, as well as careful selection of which MR sequences are run with the EEG hardware present must therefore be considered.
The above issues highlight the importance of the choice of the experimental protocol employed when performing a simultaneous EEG-fMRI experiment. Based on previous research we describe an optimal experimental set-up. This provides high quality EEG data during simultaneous fMRI when using commercial EEG and fMRI systems, with safety risks to the subject minimized. We demonstrate this set-up in an EEG-fMRI experiment using a simple visual stimulus. However, much more complex stimuli can be used. Here we show the EEG-fMRI set-up using a Brain Products GmbH (Gilching, Germany) MRplus, 32 channel EEG system in conjunction with a Philips Achieva (Best, Netherlands) 3T MR scanner, although many of the techniques are transferable to other systems.

Simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) and functional Magnetic Resonance imaging (fMRI) is a powerful neuroimaging tool. However, the inside of an MRI scanner forms a difficult environment for EEG data recording and safety must be considered whenever operating EEG equipment inside a scanner. Here, we present an optimised EEG-fMRI data acquisition protocol.

Simultaneous  EEG-fMRI allows the excellent temporal resolution of EEG to be combined with the  high spatial accuracy of fMRI. The data  from these two ...

Construction of Microdrive Arrays for Chronic Neural Recordings in Awake Behaving Mice

State-of-the-art electrophysiological recordings from the brains of freely behaving animals allow researchers to simultaneously examine local field potentials (LFPs) from populations of neurons and action potentials from individual cells, as the animal engages in experimentally relevant tasks. Chronically implanted microdrives allow for brain recordings to last over periods of several weeks. Miniaturized drives and lightweight components allow for these long-term recordings to occur in small mammals, such as mice. By using tetrodes, which consist of tightly braided bundles of four electrodes in which each wire has a diameter of 12.5 &mu;m, it is possible to isolate physiologically active neurons in superficial brain regions such as the cerebral cortex, dorsal hippocampus, and subiculum, as well as deeper regions such as the striatum and the amygdala. Moreover, this technique insures stable, high-fidelity neural recordings as the animal is challenged with a variety of behavioral tasks. This manuscript describes several techniques that have been optimized to record from the mouse brain. First, we show how to fabricate tetrodes, load them into driveable tubes, and gold-plate their tips in order to reduce their impedance from M&Omega; to K&Omega; range. Second, we show how to construct a custom microdrive assembly for carrying and moving the tetrodes vertically, with the use of inexpensive materials. Third, we show the steps for assembling a commercially available microdrive (Neuralynx VersaDrive) that is designed to carry independently movable tetrodes. Finally, we present representative results of local field potentials and single-unit signals obtained in the dorsal subiculum of mice. These techniques can be easily modified to accommodate different types of electrode arrays and recording schemes in the mouse brain.

The design and assembly of microdrives for in vivo electrophysiological recordings of brain signals from the mouse is described. By attaching microelectrode bundles to sturdy driveable carriers, these techniques allow for long-term and stable neural recordings. The lightweight design allows for unrestricted behavioral performance by the animal following drive implantation.

State-of-the-art electrophysiological recordings from the brains of freely behaving animals allow researchers to simultaneously examine local field ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Simultaneous  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that uses weak electrical currents administered to the scalp to manipulate cortical excitability and, consequently, behavior and brain function. In the last decade, numerous studies have addressed short-term and long-term effects of tDCS on different measures of behavioral performance during motor and cognitive tasks, both in healthy individuals and in a number of different patient populations. So far, however, little is known about the neural underpinnings of tDCS-action in humans with regard to large-scale brain networks. This issue can be addressed by combining tDCS with functional brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or electroencephalography (EEG).
In particular, fMRI is the most widely used brain imaging technique to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying cognition and motor functions. Application of tDCS during fMRI allows analysis of the neural mechanisms underlying behavioral tDCS effects with high spatial resolution across the entire brain. Recent studies using this technique identified stimulation induced changes in task-related functional brain activity at the stimulation site&#160;and also in more distant brain regions, which were associated with behavioral improvement. In addition, tDCS administered during resting-state fMRI allowed identification of widespread changes in whole brain functional connectivity.
Future studies using this combined protocol should yield new insights into the mechanisms of tDCS action in health and disease and new options for more targeted application of tDCS in research and clinical settings. The present manuscript describes this novel technique in a step-by-step fashion, with a focus on technical aspects of tDCS administered during fMRI.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique. It has successfully been used in basic research and clinical settings to modulate brain function in humans. This article describes the implementation of tDCS and simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to investigate the neural basis of tDCS effects.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that uses weak electrical currents administered to the scalp ...

Vision Training Methods for Sports Concussion Mitigation and Management

There is emerging evidence supporting the use vision training, including light board training tools, as a concussion baseline and neuro-diagnostic tool and potentially as a supportive component to concussion prevention strategies. This paper is focused on providing detailed methods for select vision training tools and reporting normative data for comparison when vision training is a part of a sports management program. The overall program includes standard vision training methods including tachistoscope, Brock&#8217;s string, and strobe glasses, as well as specialized light board training algorithms. Stereopsis is measured as a means to monitor vision training affects. In addition, quantitative results for vision training methods as well as baseline and post-testing *A and Reaction Test measures with progressive scores are reported. Collegiate athletes consistently improve after six weeks of training in their stereopsis, *A and Reaction Test scores. When vision training is initiated as a team wide exercise, the incidence of concussion decreases in players who participate in training compared to players who do not receive the vision training. Vision training produces functional and performance changes that, when monitored, can be used to assess the success of the vision training and can be initiated as part of a sports medical intervention for concussion prevention.

This paper describes a protocol to conduct, quantitatively monitor, and assess the success of vision training initiated as part of a sports medical management program including intervention for concussion prevention and performance enhancement.

There is emerging evidence supporting the use vision training, including light board training tools, as a concussion baseline and neuro-diagnostic tool ...

Pavlovian Conditioned Approach Training in Rats

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the attribution of incentive salience, or the transformation of neutral stimuli into attractive, &#34;wanted&#39; stimuli capable of motivating behavior. Pavlovian conditioned approach (PCA) develops after the response-independent presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS; e.g., a lever) that predicts the delivery of an unconditioned stimulus (US; e.g., a food pellet) and can be used to measure incentive salience. During training, three patterns of conditioned responses (CRs) can develop: sign-tracking behavior (CS-directed CR), goal-tracking behavior (US-directed CR), and an intermediate response (both CRs). Sign-trackers attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and are more vulnerable to cue-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking as well as other addiction-related behaviors, making PCA a potentially valuable procedure for studying addiction vulnerability. Here, we describe materials and methods used to elicit PCA behavior from rats as well as analyze and interpret PCA behavior in individual experiments.

Here, we present a protocol to elicit Pavlovian conditioned approach behavior in rats. This procedure can be used to measure individual differences in the tendency to approach and attribute incentive salience to reward-related cues and investigate addiction vulnerability.

Cues that are contingently paired with unconditioned, rewarding stimuli can acquire rewarding properties themselves through a process known as the ...

Introducing Clicker Training as a Cognitive Enrichment for Laboratory Mice

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous research determined a profound impact of gentle handling protocols on the well-being of laboratory mice. By introducing clicker training to the keeping of mice, not only do we promote the amicable treatment of mice, but we also enable them to experience cognitive enrichment. Clicker training is a form of positive reinforcement training using a conditioned secondary reinforcer, the "click" sound of a clicker, which serves as a time bridge between the strengthened behavior and an upcoming reward. The effective implementation of the clicker training protocol with a cohort of 12 BALB/c inbred mice of each sex proved to be uncomplicated. The mice learned rather quickly when challenged with tasks of the clicker training protocol, and almost all trained mice overcame the challenges they were given (100% of female mice and 83% of male mice). This study has identified that clicker training for mice strongly correlates with reduced fear in the mice during human-mice interactions, as shown by reduced anxiety-related behaviors (e.g., defecation, vocalization, and urination) and fewer depression-like behaviors (e.g., floating). By developing a reliable protocol that can be easily integrated into the daily routine of the keeping of laboratory mice, the lifetime experience of welfare in the mice can be improved substantially.

The development of new refinement strategies for laboratory mice is a challenging task that contributes towards fulfilling the 3R principle. This protocol introduces clicker training as a cognitive enrichment program for laboratory mice.

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous ...

Simultaneous Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a promising tool for noninvasive investigation of brain oscillations. TACS employs frequency-specific stimulation of the human brain through current applied to the scalp with surface electrodes. Most current knowledge of the technique is based on behavioral studies; thus, combining the method with brain imaging holds potential to better understand the mechanisms of tACS. Because of electrical and susceptibility artifacts, combining tACS with brain imaging can be challenging, however, one brain imaging technique that is well suited to be applied simultaneously with tACS is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In our lab, we have successfully combined tACS with simultaneous fMRI measurements to show that tACS effects are state, current, and frequency dependent, and that modulation of brain activity is not limited to the area directly below the electrodes. This article describes a safe and reliable setup for applying tACS simultaneously with visual task fMRI studies, which can lend to understanding oscillatory brain function as well as the effects of tACS on the brain.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a promising tool for noninvasive investigation of brain oscillations, though its effects are not completely understood. This article describes a safe and reliable setup for applying tACS simultaneously with functional magnetic resonance imaging, which can increase understanding oscillatory brain function and effects of tACS.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a promising tool for noninvasive investigation of brain oscillations. TACS employs ...

The Other End of the Leash: An Experimental Test to Analyze How Owners Interact with Their Pet Dogs

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective studies, so far, have addressed how the owner interacts with the dog. The goal of the present study was to record dog owners&#39; interaction styles by means of objective observation and coding. The experiment included eight standardized situations in which owners of pet dogs were asked to perform specific tasks including both positive (i.e. playing, teaching a new task, showing a preference towards an object in a food searching task, greeting after separation) and potentially distressing tasks (i.e. physical restriction during DNA sampling, putting a T-shirt onto the dog, giving basic obedience commands while the dog was distracted). The video recordings were coded off-line using a specifically designed coding scheme including scores for communication, social support, warmth, enthusiasm, and play style, as well as frequency of behaviors like petting, praising, commands, and attention sounds. Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 20 variables measured revealed 3 factors, labeled as Owner Warmth, Owner Social Support, and Owner Control, which can be viewed as analogues to parenting style dimensions. The experimental procedure introduced here represents the first standardized measure of interaction styles of dog owners. The methodology presented here is a useful tool to investigate individual variation in the interaction style of pet dog owners that can be used to explain differences in the dog-human relationship, dogs&#39; behavioral outcomes, and dogs stress coping strategies, all crucial elements both from a theoretical and applied point of view.

This article presents eight different experimental tasks, mirroring the everyday life of dogs and owners, used to analyze how owners interact with their dogs in a standardized way. The tasks included both positive (e.g. play) and negative (potentially stressful) situations (e.g. physical restriction).

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective ...

A Vibrotactile Feedback Device for Seated Balance Assessment and Training

Postural perturbations, motion tracking, and sensory feedback are modern techniques used to challenge, assess, and train upright sitting, respectively. The goal of the developed protocol is to construct and operate a sitting platform that can be passively destabilized while an inertial measurement unit quantifies its motion and vibrating elements deliver tactile feedback to the user. Interchangeable seat attachments alter the stability level of the device to safely challenge sitting balance. A built-in microcontroller allows fine-tuning of the feedback parameters to augment sensory function. Posturographic measures, typical of balance assessment protocols, summarize the motion signals acquired during timed balance trials. No dynamic sitting protocol to date provides variable challenge, quantification, and sensory feedback free of laboratory constraints. Our results demonstrate that non-disabled users of the device exhibit significant changes in posturographic measures when balance difficulty is altered or vibrational feedback provided. The portable, versatile device has potential applications in rehabilitation (following skeletal, muscular, or neurological injury), training (for sports or spatial awareness), entertainment (via virtual or augmented reality), and research (of sitting-related disorders).

A sitting platform has been developed and assembled that passively destabilizes sitting posture in humans. During the user&#39;s stabilizing task, an inertial measurement unit records the device&#39;s motion, and vibrating elements deliver performance-based feedback to the seat. The portable, versatile device may be used in rehabilitation, assessment, and training paradigms.

Postural perturbations, motion tracking, and sensory feedback are modern techniques used to challenge, assess, and train upright sitting, respectively. ...