Авторы хотели бы поблагодарить д-ра Чарльза Luetje за предоставление Т-образном лабиринте и поведения комнате. Эта работа проводится при поддержке Американской ассоциации сердца (на Ю.), Национального института неврологических расстройств и инсульта Грант R01NS64269 (для RGZ) и Благотворительный фонд Пью (до RGZ).

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	<li>Bonini, N. M., Fortini, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+neurodegenerative+disease+modeling+using+Drosophila.">Human neurodegenerative disease modeling using Drosophila.</a> Annual Review of Neuroscience. 26, 627-656 (2003).</li><li>Lloyd, T. E. &. a. m. p. ;. a. m. p., Taylor, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flightless+flies:+Drosophila+models+of+neuromuscular+disease.">Flightless flies: Drosophila models of neuromuscular disease.</a> Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1184, e1-e20 (2010).</li><li>Benzer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+mutants+of+Drosophila+isolated+by+countercurrent+distribution.">Behavioral mutants of Drosophila isolated by countercurrent distribution.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 58, 1112-1119 (1967).</li><li>Le Bourg, E., Buecher, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learned+suppression+of+photopositive+tendencies+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Learned suppression of photopositive tendencies in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Animal Learning &#38; Behavior. 30, 330-341 (2002).</li><li>Seugnet, L., Suzuki, Y., Stidd, R., Shaw, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aversive+phototaxic+suppression:+evaluation+of+a+short-term+memory+assay+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Aversive phototaxic suppression: evaluation of a short-term memory assay in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Genes Brain Behav. 8, 377-389 (2009).</li><li>Nilsen, S. P., Chan, Y. -. B., Huber, R., Kravitz, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gender-selective+patterns+of+aggressive+behavior+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Gender-selective patterns of aggressive behavior in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 101, 12342-12347 (2004).</li><li>Leal, S. M., Neckameyer, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacological+evidence+for+GABAergic+regulation+of+specific+behaviors+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Pharmacological evidence for GABAergic regulation of specific behaviors in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Neurobiol. 50, 245-261 (2002).</li><li>Wittmann, C. W., Wszolek, M. F., Shulman, J. M., Salvaterra, P. M., Lewis, J., Hutton, M., Feany, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tauopathy+in+Drosophila:+Neurodegeneration+Without+Neurofibrillary+Tangles.">Tauopathy in Drosophila: Neurodegeneration Without Neurofibrillary Tangles.</a> Science. 293, 711-714 (2001).</li><li>Mershin, A., Pavlopoulos, E., Fitch, O., Braden, B. C., Nanopoulos, D. V., Skoulakis, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+and+memory+deficits+upon+TAU+accumulation+in+Drosophila+mushroom+body+neurons.">Learning and memory deficits upon TAU accumulation in Drosophila mushroom body neurons.</a> Learn Mem. 11, 277-287 (2004).</li><li>Ganetzky, B., Wu, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Indirect+Suppression+Involving+Behavioral+Mutants+with+Altered+Nerve+Excitability+in+DROSOPHILA+MELANOGASTER.">Indirect Suppression Involving Behavioral Mutants with Altered Nerve Excitability in DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER.</a> Genetics. 100, 597-614 (1982).</li><li>Hall, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acetylcholinesterase+mutants+in+Drosophila+and+their+effects+on+the+structure+and+function+of+the+central+nervous+system.">Acetylcholinesterase mutants in Drosophila and their effects on the structure and function of the central nervous system.</a> J Comp Neurol. 189, 741-774 (1980).</li></ol>

Нет конфликта интересов объявлены.

Оба отрицательных geotaxis и APS анализы надежную поведенческие тесты для измерения изменений в опорно-двигательной или обучения и оперативной памяти, связанных с генетическими или экологическими манипуляции. Однако Есть некоторые недостатки этих анализов, которые ожидают дальнейшей оптимизации. В отрицательном анализе geotaxis, мутации в определенных генах могут оказать тяжелой дисфункции двигателя в мух. В таких случаях, мухи вряд ли лезть на стену в ответ на гравитацию на агитацию. Другие анализы поведения, которые непосредственно измерить движение может быть более подходящим. Эти анализы включают рефлекса поведения, что меры, паралич и захват 10 и 11 оптомоторных поведения, которая записывает потеря координации движений. В анализе APS, первым препятствием может быть мухи случайно остановки у входа в освещенную камеру, не двигаясь вперед. Это становится тем более важной проблемой, если старение является одним из условий изучены, так как пожилые мухи менее активны в целом и, как правило, остановитесь и отдохните в течение длительных периодов времени. В этом случае экспериментатор должен предоставить механические стимулы, чтобы способствовать движению, которое не всегда эффективны. Во-вторых, можно утверждать, что отказ ехать в освещенной камере результаты от потери положительный фототаксис. Это редкий случай, так как предыдущие исследования показали, что мухи вернуться к свету отзывчивость раз отрицательный укрепить удаляется 4. В-третьих, продолжительность контакта с раздражителем отвращение могут варьироваться в зависимости от испытания к испытанию. Это изменение, как правило, уменьшается на окружающих внутренней стенке камеры с пропитанной фильтровальной бумаги, чтобы предотвратить мух от избегая хинина. Кроме того, экспериментатор может гарантировать, что каждый летать проводят достаточно времени в контакте с фильтровальной бумаги, увеличивая количество времени, проведенное в камере от иное 1 минуту. Таким образом, отрицательное geotaxis и APS анализы быстро и простых способов оценки поведенческих дефицитов и количественно указывают и опорно-двигательного обучения и памяти, способности у дрозофилы. Эти анализы особенно полезны при моделировании нейродегенеративных заболеваний человека у дрозофилы.

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th> Материалы </th><th> Компания </th><th> Номер в каталоге </th><th> Комментарий </th></tr><tr><td> Полистирол флакон </td><td> Капитолий флакон, Inc </td><td> 28Fly </td><td> 28,5 х 95 мм Полистирол флакон, качество материала важно, плохо, если слишком скользким для мух, чтобы подняться. </td></tr><tr><td> Пройдя через стереоскоп </td><td> Zeiss </td><td> 000000-1432-979 </td><td> 2 филиала гусиная шея световода (12V/30W) </td></tr><tr><td> Хинин гидрохлорид </td><td> Sigma Aldrich </td><td> 6119-47-7 </td><td> Растворите в дистиллированной воде. </td></tr><tr><td> Быстрый Отсоедините разъемы </td><td> Nalgene (VWR) </td><td> 62868-021 </td><td> Полиэтилен высокой плотности </td></tr><tr><td> Т-Maze </td><td> Простые Поведенческие системы </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Одноканальная пипетка 200 мкл </td><td> Эппендорф </td><td> 022443305 </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

assaying locomotor, learning, and memory deficits in drosophila models of neurodegeneration

Достижения в области генетических методов позволило изучение генов, участвующих в человеческом нейродегенеративных заболеваний с использованием дрозофилы как модельной системы 1. Большинство из этих заболеваний, включая болезнь Альцгеймера, Паркинсона и болезнь Хантингтона характеризуются возрастных ухудшения в процессе обучения и памяти, функций и координацию движений 2. Здесь мы используем поведенческие тесты, в том числе отрицательный анализ geotaxis 3 и отвращение phototaxic анализа подавления (APS анализа) 4,5, чтобы показать, что некоторые из поведения характеристик, связанных с человеческим нейродегенерации могут быть обобщены в мух. В отрицательном анализе geotaxis, естественная тенденция мух двигаться против силы тяжести, когда взволнованный используется для исследования генов или условия, которые могут помешать опорно-двигательной способности. В анализе APS, обучения и памяти функции тестируются в положительно phototactic мухи обучение связать свет с неприятным горьким вкусом и, следовательно, избежать этого, в противном случае естественная тенденция двигаться к свету. Тестирование этих обученных мух 6 часов после обучения используется для оценки функции памяти. С помощью этих анализов, вклад какого-либо генетических или экологических факторов по отношению к развивающимся нейродегенерации может быть легко учился в мух.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration at JoVE.com

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Поведение тесты для измерения опорно-двигательной функции, обучения и памяти, способности в<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt;.

Опорно-двигательного опробование, обучение и память Дефицит Drosophila Модели нейродегенерации

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

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Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

33.3K Views.  University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine. Поведение тесты для измерения опорно-двигательной функции, обучения и памяти, способности в Drosophila.

Video: Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila. These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila. Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties.

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

We describe procedures for recording daily locomotor activity rhythms of Drosophila and subsequent data analysis. Locomotor activity rhythms are a reliable behavioral output of animal circadian clocks and are used as the standard readout of clock function when studying circadian mutants or examining how the environment regulates the circadian system.

Опробование двигательную активность по изучению циркадные ритмы сна и параметров в Drosophila</em

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) ...

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#39;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including acquisition of spatial memoryand long-term spatial memory 1. The MWM is a relatively simple procedure typically consisting of six day trials, the main advantage being the differentiation between the spatial (hidden-platform) and non-spatial (visible platform) conditions 2-4. In addition, the MWM testing environment reduces odor trail interference 5. This has led the task to be used extensively in the study of the neurobiology and neuropharmacology of spatial learning and memory. The MWM plays an important role in the validation of rodent models for neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer&#x2019;s Disease 6, 7. In this protocol we discussed the typical procedure of MWM for testing learning and memory and data analysis commonly used in Alzheimer&#x2019;s disease transgenic model mice.

Morris Water Maze Test for Learning and Memory Deficits in Alzheimer&#039;s Disease Model Mice

The Morris Water Maze is a behavioral task to test hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. It has been widely used in the study of neurobiology, neuropharmacology and neurocognitive disorders in rodent models.

Моррис воды Лабиринт Тест для обучения и памяти у мышей дефицит Болезнь Альцгеймера модели

The Morris Water Maze (MWM) was first established by neuroscientist Richard G. Morris in 1981 in order to test hippocampal-dependent learning, including ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

Оптическая запись запороговой нейронной активности с одноклеточных и одного всплеска резолюции

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

Ассоциативный аппетит обонятельного обучения в<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Личинки

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in cognitive diseases1-7. Learning and memory can be assayed in larvae to study the effect of neurodevelopmental genes8-10 and in flies to measure the contribution of adult plasticity genes1-7. Furthermore, the short lifespan of Drosophila facilitates the analysis of genes mediating age-related memory impairment5,11-13. The availability of many inducible promoters that subdivide the Drosophila nervous system makes it possible to determine when and where a gene of interest is required for normal memory as well as relay of different aspects of the reinforcement signal3,4,14,16.
Studying memory in adult Drosophila allows for a detailed analysis of the behavior and circuitry involved and a measurement of long-term memory15-17. The length of the adult stage accommodates longer-term genetic, behavioral, dietary and pharmacological manipulations of memory, in addition to determining the effect of aging and neurodegenerative disease on memory3-6,11-13,15-21.
Classical conditioning is induced by the simultaneous presentation of a neutral odor cue (conditioned stimulus, CS+) and a reinforcement stimulus, e.g., an electric shock or sucrose, (unconditioned stimulus, US), that become associated with one another by the animal1,16. A second conditioned stimulus (CS-) is subsequently presented without the US. During the testing phase, Drosophila are simultaneously presented with CS+ and CS- odors. After the Drosophila are provided time to choose between the odors, the distribution of the animals is recorded. This procedure allows associative aversive or appetitive conditioning to be reliably measured without a bias introduced by the innate preference for either of the conditioned stimuli. Various control experiments are also performed to test whether all genotypes respond normally to odor and reinforcement alone.

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

The method to measure adult Drosophila associative memory is described. The assay is based on the ability of the fly to associate an odor presented with a negative reinforcer (electric shock) and then recall this information at a later time, allowing memory to be measured.

Drosophila взрослых Обонятельная Shock Обучение

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the ...

Determination of the Spontaneous Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster has been used as an excellent model organism to study environmental and genetic manipulations that affect behavior. One such behavior is spontaneous locomotor activity. Here we describe our protocol that utilizes Drosophila population monitors and a tracking system that allows continuous monitoring of the spontaneous locomotor activity of flies for several days at a time. This method is simple, reliable, and objective and can be used to examine the effects of aging, sex, changes in caloric content of food, addition of drugs, or genetic manipulations that mimic human diseases.

Determination of the Spontaneous Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster are useful in studying genetic or environmental manipulations that affect behaviors such as spontaneous locomotor activity.&#160; Here we describe a protocol that utilizes monitors with infrared beams and data analysis software to quantify spontaneous locomotor activity.&#160;

Определение спонтанную двигательную активность в<em&gt; Дрозофилы</em

Drosophila melanogaster has been used as an excellent model organism to study environmental and genetic manipulations that affect behavior. One such ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

В естественных условиях Optogenetic возбуждение нервной системы грызунов Центральной

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Progressive neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) are an increasing threat to human health worldwide. Although mammalian models have provided important insights into the underlying mechanisms of pathogenicity, the complexity of mammalian systems together with their high costs are limiting their use. Therefore, the simple but well-established Drosophila model-system&#160;provides an alternative for investigating the molecular pathways that are affected in these diseases. Besides behavioral deficits, neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by histological phenotypes such as neuronal death and axonopathy. To quantify neuronal degeneration and to determine how it is affected by genetic and environmental factors, we use a histological approach that is based on measuring the vacuoles in adult fly brains. To minimize the effects of systematic error and to directly compare sections from control and experimental flies in one preparation, we use the &#39;collar&#39; method for paraffin sections. Neurodegeneration is then assessed by measuring the size and/or number of vacuoles that have developed in the fly brain. This can either be done by focusing on a specific region of interest or by analyzing the entire brain by obtaining serial sections that span the complete head. Therefore, this method allows one to measure not only severe degeneration but also relatively mild phenotypes that are only detectable in a few sections, as occurs during normal aging.

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Drosophila is widely used as a model system to study neurodegeneration. This protocol describes a method by which degeneration, as determined by vacuole formation in the brain, can be quantified. It also minimizes effects due to the experimental procedure by processing and sectioning control and experimental flies as one sample.

Масса гистологии к Количественно нейродегенерации<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Progressive neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) are an increasing threat to human health ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

Оценка пространственного обучения и памяти в малых чешуйчатый Рептилий

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Дрозофила в качестве меры обучения и памяти

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...