Carbohydrates consumed through foods are converted into glucose, a crucial energy source for the body. In the prandial state, high blood glucose levels ...

The pancreas comprises highly vascularized and innervated pancreatic islets, encompassing α, β, δ, PP, and ε endocrine cells. Amongst ...

The insulin receptor belongs to the receptor tyrosine kinase family. It comprises disulfide-linked α/β dimers, forming a transmembrane ...

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia. The two most common types of diabetes mellitus are type 1 and type 2. ...

Diabetes can be initially identified based on symptoms. Hyperglycemic patients may present common symptoms, including polyuria, polydipsia, fatigue, and ...

The goals of diabetes therapy include glycemic control, alleviating hyperglycemia-related symptoms, and preventing or reducing chronic end-organ ...

The pancreatic β-cell's endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes preproinsulin comprising a signal peptide, B and A chains, and a C-peptide. The ...

Insulin preparations, based on their duration of action, are categorized as short-acting and long-acting. Short-acting regular insulin forms hexamers, ...

Insulin dosage regimens generally include a mixture of analogs given as daily injections. Typically, most patients are prescribed long and short-acting ...

Sulfonylureas are a class of insulin secretagogues. They are used as oral hypoglycemic agents for managing Type 2 diabetes. Structurally, these drugs ...

Biguanides are insulin sensitizers that enhance glucose uptake, reducing insulin resistance. Unlike sulfonylureas, they do not stimulate insulin ...

Glinides are insulin secretagogues that trigger insulin release from β cells by inhibiting KATP channels and controlling potassium efflux. They share ...

α-glucosidase inhibitors impede intestinal α-glucosidase enzymes, delaying the digestion of starch and disaccharides. This effectively curtails ...

Oral glucose intake triggers gut hormones like GLP-1 and GIP called incretins, which stimulate insulin secretion. Both GLPs and glucagon originate from ...

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4, or DPP-4 inhibitors, called gliptins inhibit incretin hormone inactivation. These drugs bind to DPP-4,  increasing the levels ...

Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels >80 mg/dL due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine system. However, ...