Core - Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 5

Learning

5.1 : Introduction to Learning

5.1 : Introduction to Learning

Learning involves acquiring knowledge or skills through practice, experience, or observation. The results seen after learning are relatively permanent ...

5.2 : Associative Learning

5.2 : Associative Learning

Associative learning occurs when a connection is made between two stimuli or events. For example, a child may learn to clean their room regularly if they ...

5.3 : Classical Conditioning

5.3 : Classical Conditioning

While studying dogs' digestive systems, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered that behaviors can be learned through association. He noticed ...

5.4 : Principles of Classical Conditioning

5.4 : Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning typically has five key principles. During acquisition, a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is paired with an unconditioned ...

5.5 : Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning

5.5 : Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning has real-world applications dependent on the conditioning order. Higher-order or second-order conditioning occurs when a neutral ...

5.6 : Classical Conditioning in Daily Life

5.6 : Classical Conditioning in Daily Life

Classical conditioning can explain several commonly observed behaviors in daily life. Watson and Rayner observed that pairing a white rat with a loud ...

5.7 : Operant Conditioning

5.7 : Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behavior to alter its likelihood. For example, praising a child for completing homework exemplifies ...

5.8 : Law of Effect

5.8 : Law of Effect

B. F. Skinner built the theory of operant conditioning on the concept of the law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike. Thorndike placed a hungry cat in ...

5.9 : Reinforcement

5.9 : Reinforcement

Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, and negative reinforcement removes something undesirable. ...

5.10 : Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

5.10 : Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance learning is a distinct response to negative reinforcement. It occurs when an individual learns that a specific behavior, such as avoiding ...

5.11 : Punishment

5.11 : Punishment

Negative reinforcement and punishment serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Negative reinforcement improves the desired behavior by removing ...

5.12 : Role of Shaping in Operant Conditioning

5.12 : Role of Shaping in Operant Conditioning

Shaping is a method in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a target behavior are rewarded. For instance, an individual learns to write ...

5.13 : Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

5.13 : Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned. For humans, primary reinforcers include food, sleep, affection, and shelter, ...

5.14 : Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

5.14 : Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are key concepts in operant conditioning. Generalization involves performing a reinforced behavior in ...

5.15 : Reinforcement Schedules

5.15 : Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous reinforcement, like giving a dog a treat every time it sits in a place, reinforces the sitting behavior. Conversely, partial reinforcement ...

5.16 : Timing and Consequences on Behavior

5.16 : Timing and Consequences on Behavior

In operant conditioning, timing is crucial for reinforcement. Studies show that animals such as rats and cats require immediate reinforcement for ...

5.17 : Behavior Modification

5.17 : Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is a method used to change someone's behavior through a system of rewards and punishments. It uses operant conditioning to ...

5.18 : Cognitive Learning

5.18 : Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning includes purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning. Tolman proposed that behavior is goal-directed and must be ...

5.19 : Purposive Learning

5.19 : Purposive Learning

Tolman emphasized that behavior is often purposive or goal-directed. For instance, an employee working towards a promotion consistently puts in extra ...

5.20 : Observational Learning

5.20 : Observational Learning

Observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. The Bobo doll ...

5.21 : Steps in the Modeling Process

5.21 : Steps in the Modeling Process

Modeling involves four key steps. The first step is attention. Consider a yoga session in which the instructor shows all the participants how to perform ...

5.22 : Conditioned Taste Aversion

5.22 : Conditioned Taste Aversion

Conditioned taste aversion, also known as sauce bearnaise syndrome, occurs when classical conditioning leads to avoidance reactions to certain food ...

5.23 : Preparedness and Phobias

5.23 : Preparedness and Phobias

Phobias such as darkness, heights, deep water, and blood are common among people and often occur without any prior frightening experiences. Evolution ...

5.24 : Instinctive Drift

5.24 : Instinctive Drift

Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to their innate behaviors despite repeated reinforcement. Breland and Breland conducted an ...

5.25 : Metacognition

5.25 : Metacognition

Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive processes and executive functioning. For example, a writer reflecting ...

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