Helmholtz Derneği Girişimi ve Ağ Fonu, Else Kroener-Fresenius Vakfı&#39;ndan hibe ve Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft bir hibe yoluyla Görüntüleme ve Kür Çevre Metabolik Hastalıklar, (- Bu çalışma Helmholtz İttifak ICEMED tarafından (kısmen) finanse edildi SFB 655: dokulara hücreler).

Iş Helsinski Deklarasyonu ve ARVO Hayvan Bildirimi yapışır. Dresden Üniversitesi Hayvan tesisin talimatlarına göre Hayvan doku toplanması için kullanıldı ve ilgili yöntem takip edildi. Hayvanlar ele ve ev sahipliği laboratuvar hayvanlarının kullanımı ve bakımı için Alman Federal kurallarına göre ve çalışma Landesdirektion Dresden tarafından onaylandı edildi. Uygun ötenazi yöntemi konusunda kurumunuzun veteriner politikası (IACUC veya diğer yönetim kurulu) danışın. Özel stok ve reaktiflerin çalışma konsantrasyonları bu protokolü eşlik Reaktif Tablolar bulunabilir. 1.. Kültür Bulaşık Hazırlık <ol><li> 75 ug yeterli bir hacmi ile Coat tabaklar / ml poli-L-ornitin (örneğin 2 ml / oyuk, 6 oyuklu plaka) bir karışımı, 2 gün önce, planlanan diseksiyon bugüne kadar hücre kültürü kuluçka makinesi içinde. </li><li&gt; Aspire poli-L-ornitin ertesi gün ve 5 dakika boyunca PBS içinde 3 ml 2 x de, her yıkayın. </li><li> Nihai yıkama çıkarın, daha sonra plaka fibronektinin (1:250 seyreltilmiş PBS&#39;de 4 ug / ml) ekleyin ve gece boyunca inkübatör bulaşıkları yerleştirin. </li><li> Diseksiyon gününde fibronektin aspire ve yemekleri PBS ile 2x yıkayın. Hala ayrışmış doku kültürü için hazır olana kadar nihai PBS inkübatör yıkayın içeren plakaları dönmek. O zaman, doku kaplama için PBS önce çıkarın. </li><li> Kadar 3 hafta için kuluçka poli-L-ornithinein ile kaplanmış plakalar deposu. Fibronektin ile kaplı plakalar kadar 1 hafta boyunca depolanabilir. Acil ise Fibronektin kaplama az 2 saat içinde yapılabilir. Fibronektin denatürasyona açıktır; çözüm ajitasyon ya da yemekleri kurumasını izin vermeyin. </li></ol> 2. Diseksiyon / Kaplama <ol><li> Bu protokol, 3 yetişkin farelerin (yaş 3-6 ay) kullanımı için geçerlidir. </li><li> Chill önce sıçan ötenazi için buz üzerinde blok kesit beyin. </li><li> Buz üzerine eklendi bFGF ile N2 ortam 5 ml ihtiva eden bir 15 ml Falcon tüpü yerleştirin. </li><li> Kurumunuzun veteriner politikasına göre fareler Euthanize. </li><li> Başın orta hat aşağı bir kesi yaparak kafatası beyin çıkarın. Dikkatli ekstre edilecek beyin için izin kemik soyulmaya forseps kullanın. </li><li> Soğuk PBS içeren bir 10 cm Petri kabı içine beyin yerleştirin. Bu herhangi bir kalıntı saç ve kan kaldıracaktır. (Şekil 1A) </li><li> Soğutulmuş kesit bloğu içine beyin yerleştirin. (Şekil 1B) </li><li> Şekil 1C resimde olduğu gibi blok içine bir yeni temiz bir jilet yerleştirin. </li><li> Şekil 1D &#39;de gösterildiği gibi birinci, ikinci temiz bir traş makinesi bıçak 3 mm kaudal yerleştirin. </li><li> Dikkatle onlarla ilgi bölümünü alarak, blok bıçakları kaldırın. </li><li> Sec FloatPBS içinde daldırarak bıçağı kapalı masına neden. (Şekil 1 E) </li><li> Ilgi alanından hasat doku # 5 forseps kullanarak (bu örnekte biz ön komissura, (anterior) ACA, Şekil 1F kullanılan) ve bFGF içeren 1 ml N2 ortamı içeren 15 ml konik tüp içine toplamak. </li><li> Steril koşullar altında protokol kalan devam eden, bir laminar akış başlığı hücre kültürü içine borusunu. </li><li> Mekanik bir P1000 pipet bağlı 1 ml&#39;lik bir pipet kullanarak doku ayırmak. Yukarı ve aşağı pipet birkaç kez (yaklaşık 20x saniyede 1 pipet döngüsünün bir oranda) konik tüp (Şekil 1G 1-3) tabanına karşı pipet açılışını basarken. Çözelti homojen hale geldiğinde öğütme durdurun. </li><li> Çözüm daha büyük herhangi nondissociated doku altına yerleşmek için izin vermek için 2 dakika bekletin. (Şekil 1G 4) </li><li> Homojen toplayıneous süpernatan ve N2 ortamı içinde 8.5 ml ve 20 ng / ml bFGF, 500 ng / ml Dll4, 500 ng / ml Ang2 ve 200 nMJAK inhibitörü içeren bir konik tüp içine yerleştirin. </li><li> 3 seyreltilmiş hücre çözeltisinin ml / çukur kullanılarak 6-kuyulu plakanın kuyularına 3 Plate. </li><li> 37 ° C,% 5 CO2,% 5 O2 nemlendirilmiş bir hücre kuluçka makinesi içine levha yerleştirin. </li></ol> 3. Günlük Bakım <ol><li> Kaplama 24 saat sonra inhibitör bFGF&#39;yi, Ang2, Dll4, ve JAK içeren N2 Ortamı ile kültür yemekleri orta yerine. </li><li> BFGF, Dll4, Ang2 ve bir sonraki gün JAK inhibitörünün bir bolus ekleyin. </li><li> Ortam değişim ve 10-14 gün toplam etken eklemeler bu alternatif işleme devam edin. </li></ol> 4. Farklılaşma indüksiyon <ol><li> Ortamı içeren inhibitörü bFGF&#39;yi, Dll4, Ang2 ve JAK&#39;ı çekilme ve herhangi bir ek faktörleri içermiyor N2 ortamı değiştirin. </li><li> Her ikinci gün orta değiştirin. </li><li> 10 gün sonra hücreler saptamak ve immünositokimya gerçekleştirin. </li></ol> 5. Immünositokimyasal Algılama <ol><li> Ortam aspire ve 20 dakika boyunca% 4 paraformaldehid, 2 ml hücre kültürü plakaları düzeltin. </li><li> 5 dakika her biri için, 3 ml PBS ile yıkayın 2x. </li><li> PBS aspire, sonra geçirgen ve 20 dakika boyunca% 5 normal eşek serumu (NDS) ve% 0.1 Triton X-100 içeren PBS içinde 2 ml ekleyerek hücreleri bloke eder. </li><li> % 5 NDS içeren PBS birincil antikor karışımı hazırlayın. Tuj1 (sınıf III β-tubulin), GFAP ve CNPase antikorlar farklılaşma işaretlerinin üçlü boyanması için birlikte kullanılabilir ise anti-Nestin antikoru, SC&#39;ler belirlenmesi için de kullanılabilir. </li><li> Engelleme çözeltisi aspire ve de her bir birincil antikor karışımı 1.5 ml. 90 dakika boyunca oda sıcaklığında inkübe edin. </li><li> Birincil antikorlar çıkarın ve 3 ml PBS ile 2 kez yıkama, ve her biri 5 dakika boyunca 5% NDS ihtiva eden PBS içinde 3 ml 1x. </li><li> Prepare PBS içinde% 5 ikincil antikorlar NDS ihtiva etmektedir. </li><li> Nihai yıkama aspire ve de her bir sekonder antikor çözeltisi 1,5 ml ekleyin. Oda sıcaklığında 40 dakika boyunca karanlıkta inkübe edin. </li><li> İkincil antikor çözeltisini çıkarın ve taze hazırlanmış bir DAPI leke 2 ml (PBS içerisinde 500 ng / ml) ilave edilmektedir. 3 dakika boyunca inkübe edin. </li><li> DAPI çözeltisi aspire daha sonra 5 dakika her biri için, 3 ml PBS ile 3 kez yıkayın. Hücreler artık bir floresan mikroskobu ile görselleştirilebilir. </li></ol>

<ol>
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Biz ifşa hiçbir şey yok.

Başarılı izolasyon, genişleme, ve yetişkin beyin nöral kök hücrelerin farklılaşması için kritik adımların birçok standart doku kültürü teknikleri ile ortak paylaşılır. Akılda tutulması amacı, yetişkin beyin izole NSC&#39;lerde mümkün olduğunca in vivo özellikleri (Şekil 2J) kadar çok sayıda muhafaza gerektiğidir. Genellikle gerekli dikkat ve uygun hızı arasında bir denge vurdu gerekiyor. Kafatası beyin izolasyonu ile bakımı ilgi bölgenin tanımlanması ö...

Bir yüzyıl önce Ramón Y. Cajal tarafından yapılan beyin hücre mimarisini temel gözlemler tarafından belirlenen nörobiyoloji santral dogma, ergenlik MSS 1. bulunan sinir ağlarının karmaşıklığı verilen sonra nöron olası olduğunu düzenledi. 1960&#39;larda Altman iş, ve sonra Kaplan, 3 H-timidin aslında nöronlar yetişkin beynin farklı bölgelerinde üretilen belirten olgun nöronlarda bulunan olabileceğini gösteren rağmen, dogma 2, 3 tutmaya devam etti. Kanıt songbird beyinlerinde 4 mevcut nöronların sayısında mevsimsel değişiklikleri açıklayan Nottebohm araştırma ile bağlamaya devam etti. 1999 yılına kadar değildi zaman sıçan ilişkisel öğrenme görevlerin performansı yanı sıra Kornack ve Rakic ​​gösteriler yo gözlemleri ile hipokampus artar nöronların nesil Gould ve ark. Yayınlanmış çalışmasıting, daha az sert, fazla plastik beyin kavramı, 5 kabul edilmiş yetişkin makak, 6 nörogenezi devam etmiştir. Bu de novo oluşturulan nöronlar için hücresel kaynak için arama 7 nişler olarak adlandırılan beyin bölgelerinde bulunan kök hücreler (SCS) ayrı bir nüfusun keşfedilmesine yol açmıştır. Subventricular bölgesi ve hipokampus alt granül bölgesi, iki ana bölge nörojenik 8,9 olarak kabul edilir. Bu yerlerde izole hücreler klasik embriyonik veya fetal kaynaklı AVM&#39;ler karakteristiği, kendini yenileme ve farklılaşma potansiyeli göstermektedir. Nöral kök hücreler (NSC&#39;lerde) durumunda, bu nöronlar, astrositler ve oligodendrositler farklı olabilir. Ayrıca, bu SC&#39;ler, ara filament protein Nestin 10 fetal NSC belirteçleri için pozitif leke. Daha yeni çalışmalar AVM&#39;ler bu t sınırlı olmayabilir vurgulamaktadıralanları wo ve aslında sıkıca damar 11 ile bağlantılı bir hücre popülasyonu olarak büyük ölçüde hareketsiz beyin boyunca lokalizedir. AVM&#39;ler yaralanmaya yanıt olarak seferber olan gözlemler nörodejeneratif bozukluğu ve felç 12, 13 kurtarma yardım rejeneratif amaçlı bu hücreleri kullanmak mümkün olma olasılığını göstermektedir. Bu osteoblastlar, kıkırdaklan ve yağ hücreleri 14 olma potansiyeline sahip perivasküler hücreler olarak bulunan mezenkimal kök hücreler (MKH) bağ dokularının iyileşmesi oynadığı rol, farklı değildir. Bununla birlikte, NSC&#39;lerde rutin aspirasyon ve yoğunluk dereceli santrifüj teknikleri ile kemik iliğinden MSC ile aynı şekilde hasat edilemez ve ardından otolog hücre bazlı terapiler olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bunun bir sonucu olarak, bu tür EMB türetilen fetal NSC&#39;lerde veya nöronal öncülerinin kullanımı gibi diğer hücre kaynakları,ryonic kök hücreler yoğun bir başarı 15 dereceleri değişen hayvan hastalık ve yaralanma modellerinde araştırılmıştır. Somatik hücre kaynakları kullanarak uyarılmış pluripotent kök hücre teknolojileri kısıtlı olduğu ve embriyonik hücre ve fetal dokular 16 kullanımı ile ilgili endişeler etik üstesinden, geniş bir uygulama yelpazesi için terapötik açıdan yararlı, hücre bazlı terapiler üretilmesi için bir diğer potansiyel bir yol sunar. Ancak, bu bulguların klinik çeviri 17,18 yanı sıra, düzenleyici izni için dolambaçlı bir yol yaklaşımlar SC-temelli terapötik ile çeşitli nörolojik durumların tedavisi mücadelelerde gösterdiği gibi, zor bir görev olduğunu kanıtlamıştır. Alternatif bir yaklaşım olarak, belirli bir farmakolojik tedavilerin giriş NSC sayıda modüle eden ve Parkinson hastalığı ve felç 19 modellerinde kurtarma kolaylaştırabilir. Strateji, etkili bu hücreleri manipüle etmek için nasıl bir anlayış olabilir ne olursa olsunerişilebilir bir in vitro sistemi gerektirir. NSC&#39;lerde kültürleri, aynı zamanda olarak da bilinen neurospheres toplam kültürleri, ya bir tek tabaka ya da 8,20 olarak gerçekleştirilebilir. Her iki teknik, yaygın multipotent öncülerinin genişletilmesi için kültür koşulları sağlamak tanımlanan, bir mitojen kaynağı olarak Epidermal Büyüme Faktörü (EGF) veya bazik fibroblast büyüme faktörü (bFGF) yani kullanım kurulması için izin kullanılmıştır. Neurosphere kültürleri, bir izole edilmiş hücre tipi klonal yayılma yeteneği eğitim için daha uygun olsa da, sistem 21 genişlemesi sırasında hücrelerin karışık bir popülasyonunun üretilmesi için gösterilmiştir. Buna ek olarak, neurospheres kapalı yapısı, hücrelerin manipülasyonu farmakolojik pratik hale getirir, ve bu faktörler olabilir etkisi nedeniyle yorumlanması neurosphere kendi içinde kurulmuş olan mikro için eleştirilmiştir edilebilir. Tek tabakalı kültürleri, diğer taraftan, olabilir,SC büyümesini ve farklılaşmasını düzenleyen ve özellikle bu hücre popülasyonu hedef yeni bileşikler keşfetmek için bir fırsat açılır sinyal iletim mekanizmaları keşfetmek için güçlü bir araç sağlayarak, küçük molekül kütüphanelerin yüksek kapasiteli ekranlarında istihdam. Sonuç olarak, yeniden üretilebilir beyinde ilgi farklı bölgelerinden yetişkin NSC&#39;lerde kültürleri üretmek için yeteneği, merkezi sinir sistemi (MSS) gelişme çalışmalarından gelen yeni yaklaşımlar içinde rejeneratif ilaç kadar, araştırma uygulamaları geniş bir yelpazede kullanılabilir . Burada sunulan protokol incelemek ve erişkin kemirgen beyin izole MSS AVM&#39;ler arasında farklılaşma potansiyelini değerlendirmek için nasıl gösterir.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="596">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">6-well tissue culture dishes</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">353934</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="190" rowspan="1" style="height:190px;width:216px;">Poly-L-ornithine</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">P-3655</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			5 mg/ml stock solution prepared in double distilled water (Stable for several months at -20 &#176;C).
			Working concentration 0.5 mg/ml in water (Stable for 1 month at 4 &#176;C).
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Fibronectin</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1030-Fn</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Do not agitate stock solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Filtration Apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Corning Life Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">430769</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">DMEM/F-12</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Mediatech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10-090-CV</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">See note below for complete N2 media preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Apo-transferrin</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T-2036</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Insulin</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">I-0516</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="68">
			<td height="68" style="height:68px;width:216px;">Putrescine</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P-5780</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">1 M stock solution in ddH2O (Stable at 20 &#176;C for 6 months)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="68">
			<td height="68" style="height:68px;width:216px;">Sodium Selenite</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S-5261</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">500 &#181;M stock solution in ddH2O (Stable at -20 &#176;C for 6 months)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Progesterone</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P-8783</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">100 &#181;M stock solution in ethanol (Stable at -20&#176;C for 6 months)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15140-122</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Mediatech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">21-040-CV</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">233-FB</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Working concentration 20 ng/ml&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Delta4 (Dll4)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1389-D4</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Working concentration&#160; 500 ng/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Angiopoetin 2 (Ang2)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">623-AN</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Working concentration&#160; 500 ng/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">JAK Inhibitor</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Calbiochem</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">420099</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Working concentration 200 nM&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A-2058</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">15- and 50-ml Conical tubes</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Corning Life Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">430053, 430829</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="243">
			<td colspan="4" height="243" style="height:243px;width:596px;">Other necessary items include: General dissection instruments, including razor blade and forceps, Adult rat (3-6 months old; Sprague-Dawley or Long Evans), CO2 intoxication chamber, Laminar flow hood for cell culture and incubator Incubator (humidified, 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2, 5% O2). Note: For complete N2 media preparation, to one bottle of DMEM/F-12 (500 ml) add 0.05 g of apotransferin, 0.0125 g of insulin (freshly predissolved in 1 ml of 10 mM NaOH), 50 &#956;l of putrescine, 30 &#956;l of sodium selenite, 100 &#956;l of progesterone stocks, and 5 ml of penicillin/streptomycin solution.&#160; Adjust pH to 7.2, if needed. Filter-sterilize and store at 4 &#176;C for up to 3 weeks and protect from light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>[header]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td colspan="2" height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Immunofluorescence Reagents Table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15719</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Normal Donkey Serum (NDS)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D-9663</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">T-8787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:216px;">4,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D-8417</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">5 mg/ml stock solution in methanol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>[header]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Primary Antibody Table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Nestin</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Chemicon</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">MAB353</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:400
			Species: Mouse IgG1
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Hes3</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Santa Cruz</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">sc-25393</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:100
			Species: Rabbit IgG
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Sox2</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">MAB2018&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:100
			Species: Mouse IgG2a
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">CNPase</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Chemicon</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">MAB326</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:200
			Species: Mouse IgG1
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">&#946;-tubulin III (TUJ1)</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">MAB1195</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:500
			Species: Mouse IgG2a
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="43" rowspan="1" style="height:43px;width:216px;">Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Dako North America</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">Z0334</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor 1:500
			Species: Rabbit
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>[header]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Secondary Antibody Table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="64" rowspan="1" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Alexa&#160;&#160; 568</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">A-21124</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:200
			Species: Goat anti Mouse IgG1
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="64" rowspan="1" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Alexa 488</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">A-21131</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:200
			Species: Goat anti Mouse IgG2a
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="64" rowspan="1" style="height:64px;width:216px;">Cy5</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:95px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td rowspan="1" style="width:119px;">59883</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">
			Dilution Factor: 1:200
			Species: Goat anti Rabbit
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

growing neural stem cells from conventional and nonconventional regions of the adult rodent brain

Son çalışma merkezi sinir sistemi (MSS) rejenerasyon ve tümörgenez kök hücre popülasyonları (AVM&#39;ler) yetişkin beyin içinde ikamet içerdiğini göstermektedir. Ancak bu mekanizmalar normal olarak sakin hücrelerinin uygun sinir ağlarının işleyişini yanı sıra nörodejeneratif süreçlerin yaralanma ve azaltılması kurtarma rollerini sağlamak için istihdam çok az anlaşılmıştır. Bu hücreler, vasküler ve bağışıklık sistemi hem de düzenleyici sinyallerini içeren bir idame ettiren bir ortam sağlamak &quot;niş&quot; olarak adlandırılan bölgelerde bulunur. Bilinmeyen faktörler hariç belirlenen kültür koşulları altında MSS AVM&#39;ler arasında izolasyon, bakım ve farklılaşma, böylece in vivo davranışları içgörü sağlayarak, farmakolojik veya genetik yollarla tedaviye onları erişilebilir kılar. Burada yetişkin beynin farklı bölgelerinden gelen MSS AVM&#39;ler kültürlerini oluşturmak için yöntemler hakkında detaylı bilgi sunmak ve onların d değerlendirmek için yaklaşımlarnöronlar, astrositler ve in vitro oligodendrosit içine ifferentiation potansiyeli. Bu teknik, tek tek SC&#39;ler ve döl çalışma görselleştirilebilir tek tabakalı bir kültür olarak homojen bir hücre popülasyonu elde edilir. Bundan başka, farklı hayvan modeli sistemlerinde ve klinik örnekler arasında uygulanabilir hasarlı yetişkin sinir sisteminin rejeneratif tepkileri tahmin etmek için daha önce kullanılan edilir.

Nöral kök hücreleri toplamak için hangi ilgi bölgeyi belirlenmesi kritik ilk adımdır ve bu hücrelerin birleşen bir plaka almak için gereken süreyi tanımlar. Örneğin, SVZ klasik nörojenik bir alandır ve dolayısıyla nöral kök hücre, daha yüksek bir göreceli bir oran vardır. Ancak burada sunulan teknik genellikle yetişkinlik döneminde sağlam bir nörojenik potansiyele sahip olarak tanınan değil diğer bölgelerde kullanılabilir. Bu protokolün amaçları için, ön komissura (ön kısım) kull...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Growing Neural Stem Cells from Conventional and Nonconventional Regions of the Adult Rodent Brain at JoVE.com

Growing Neural Stem Cells from Conventional and Nonconventional Regions of the Adult Rodent Brain

Yetişkin beyin hasat nöral kök hücreler sinir sistemi gelişiminin temel araştırma rejeneratif tıpta potansiyel klinik uygulamaları keşfetmek için çeşitli uygulamalar kullanılmaktadır artmaktadır. Bu deneysel sonuçların ses için kritik bu hücreleri büyümek için kullanılan yalıtım ve kültür koşullarında titiz kontrolü yapar.

Yetişkin Kemirgen Beyin konvansiyonel ve konvansiyonel olmayan Bölgelerinden Nöral Kök Hücreler Büyüyen

Recent work demonstrates that central nervous system (CNS) regeneration and tumorigenesis involves populations of stem cells (SCs) resident within the ...

growing-neural-stem-cells-from-conventional-nonconventional-regions

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

12.1K Görüntüleme.  University of Dresden.  Yetişkin beyin hasat nöral kök hücreler sinir sistemi gelişiminin temel araştırma rejeneratif tıpta potansiyel klinik uygulamaları keşfetmek için çeşitli uygulamalar kullanılmaktadır artmaktadır. Bu deneysel sonuçların ses için kritik bu hücreleri büyümek için kullanılan yalıtım ve kültür koşullarında titiz kontrolü yapar. 

Video: Growing Neural Stem Cells from Conventional and Nonconventional Regions of the Adult Rodent Brain

Growth and Differentiation of Adult Hippocampal Arctic Ground Squirrel Neural Stem Cells

Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii, AGS) are unique in their ability to hibernate with a core body temperature near or below freezing 1. These animals also resist ischemic injury to the brain in vivo 2,3 and oxygen-glucose deprivation in vitro 4,5. These unique qualities provided the impetus to isolate AGS neurons to examine inherent neuronal characteristics that could account for the capacity of AGS neurons to resist injury and cell death caused by ischemia and extremely cold temperatures. Identifying proteins or gene targets that allow for the distinctive properties of these cells could aid in the discovery of effective therapies for a number of ischemic indications and for the study of cold tolerance. Adult AGS hippocampus contains neural stem cells that continue to proliferate, allowing for easy expansion of these stem cells in culture. We describe here methods by which researchers can utilize these stem cells and differentiated neurons for any number of purposes. By closely following these steps the AGS neural stem cells can be expanded through two passages or more and then differentiated to a culture high in TUJ1-positive neurons (~50%) without utilizing toxic chemicals to minimize the number of dividing cells. Ischemia induces neurogenesis 6 and neurogenesis which proceeds via MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt survival signaling pathways contributes to ischemia resistance in vivo7 and in vitro 8 (Kelleher-Anderson, Drew et al., in preparation). Further characterization of these unique neural cells can advance on many fronts, using some or all of these methods.

Neural stem cells were prepared from the hippocampus of adult non-hibernating yearling Arctic ground squirrels (AGS). These neural stem cells can be expanded through numerous passages, differentiated and maintained as a nearly 50:50 neuron to glial culture.

Yetişkin Hipokampal Arctic Zemin Sincap Nöral Kök Hücre Büyüme ve Farklılaşma

Arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii, AGS) are unique in their ability to hibernate with a core body temperature near or below freezing 1. These ...

Nörobilim

Isolation and Expansion of the Adult Mouse Neural Stem Cells Using the Neurosphere Assay

Isolation and expansion of the putative neural stem cells (NSCs) from the adult murine brain was first described by Reynolds and Weiss in 1992 employing a chemically defined serum-free culture system known as the neurosphere assay (NSA). In this assay, the majority of differentiated cell types die within a few days of culture but a small population of growth factor responsive precursor cells undergo active proliferation in the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and/ basic fibroblastic growth factor (bFGF). These cells form colonies of undifferentiated cells called neurospheres, which in turn can be subcultured to expand the pool of neural stem cells. Moreover, the cells can be induced to differentiate, generating the three major cell types of the CNS i.e. neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. This assay provides an invaluable tool to supply a consistent, renewable source of undifferentiated CNS precursors, which could be used for in vitro studies and also for therapeutic purposes.
This video demonstrates the NSA method to generate and expand NSCs from the adult mouse periventricular region, and provides technical insights to ensure one can achieve reproducible neurosphere cultures. The procedure includes harvesting the brain from the adult mouse, micro-dissection of the periventricular region, tissue preparation and culture in the NSA. The harvested tissue is first chemically digested using trypsin-EDTA and then mechanically dissociated in NSC medium to achieve a single cell suspension and finally plated in the NSA. After 7-10 days in culture, the resulting primary neurospheres are ready for subculture to reach the amount of cells required for future experiments.

This video protocol demonstrates the neurosphere assay method to generate and expand neural stem cells from the adult mouse periventricular region, and provides technical insights to ensure one can achieve reproducible neurosphere cultures.

Neurosphere Testi Yetişkin Fare Nöral Kök Hücre İzolasyonu ve Genişleme

Isolation and expansion of the putative neural stem cells (NSCs) from the adult murine brain was first described by Reynolds and Weiss in 1992 employing a ...

Isolation and Culture of Neural Crest Cells from Embryonic Murine Neural Tube

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrates throughout the embryo, giving rise to diverse cell types 1-3. NC also has the unique ability to influence the differentiation and maturation of target organs4-6. When explanted in vitro, NC progenitors undergo self-renewal, migrate and differentiate into a variety of tissue types including neurons, glia, smooth muscle cells, cartilage and bone. 
NC multipotency was first described from explants of the avian neural tube7-9. In vitro isolation of NC cells facilitates the study of NC dynamics including proliferation, migration, and multipotency. Further work in the avian and rat systems demonstrated that explanted NC cells retain their NC potential when transplanted back into the embryo10-13. Because these inherent cellular properties are preserved in explanted NC progenitors, the neural tube explant assay provides an attractive option for studying the NC in vitro. 
To attain a better understanding of the mammalian NC, many methods have been employed to isolate NC populations. NC-derived progenitors can be cultured from post-migratory locations in both the embryo and adult to study the dynamics of post-migratory NC progenitors11,14-20, however isolation of NC progenitors as they emigrate from the neural tube provides optimal preservation of NC cell potential and migratory properties13,21,22. Some protocols employ fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to isolate a NC population enriched for particular progenitors11,13,14,17. However, when starting with early stage embryos, cell numbers adequate for analyses are difficult to obtain with FACS, complicating the isolation of early NC populations from individual embryos. Here, we describe an approach that does not rely on FACS and results in an approximately 96% pure NC population based on a Wnt1-Cre activated lineage reporter23. 
The method presented here is adapted from protocols optimized for the culture of rat NC11,13. The advantages of this protocol compared to previous methods are that 1) the cells are not grown on a feeder layer, 2) FACS is not required to obtain a relatively pure NC population, 3) premigratory NC cells are isolated and 4) results are easily quantified. Furthermore, this protocol can be used for isolation of NC from any mutant mouse model, facilitating the study of NC characteristics with different genetic manipulations. The limitation of this approach is that the NC is removed from the context of the embryo, which is known to influence the survival, migration and differentiation of the NC2,24-28.

Isolation of embryonic neural crest from the neural tube facilitates the use of in vitro methods for studying migration, self-renewal, and multipotency of neural crest.

Embriyonik Mürin Nöral Tüp çıkan sinirsel Crest Hücre İzolasyonu ve Kültür

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to ...

One Mouse, Two Cultures: Isolation and Culture of Adult Neural Stem Cells from the Two Neurogenic Zones of Individual Mice

The neurosphere assay and the adherent monolayer culture system are valuable tools to determine the potential (proliferation or differentiation) of adult neural stem cells in vitro. These assays can be used to compare the precursor potential of cells isolated from genetically different or differentially treated animals&#160;to determine the effects of exogenous factors on neural precursor cell proliferation and differentiation and to generate neural precursor cell lines that can be assayed over continuous passages. The neurosphere assay is traditionally used for the post-hoc identification of stem cells, primarily due to the lack of definitive markers with which they can be isolated from primary tissue&#160;and has the major advantage of giving a quick estimate of precursor cell numbers in brain tissue derived from individual animals. Adherent monolayer cultures, in contrast, are not traditionally used to compare proliferation between individual animals, as each culture is generally initiated from the combined tissue of between 5-8 animals. However, they have the major advantage that, unlike neurospheres, they consist of a mostly homogeneous population of precursor cells and are useful for following the differentiation process in single cells. Here, we describe, in detail, the generation of neurosphere cultures and, for the first time, adherent cultures from individual animals. This has many important implications including paired analysis of proliferation and/or differentiation potential in both the subventricular zone (SVZ) and dentate gyrus (DG) of treated or genetically different mouse lines, as well as a significant reduction in animal usage.

Here we describe a detailed protocol for the simultaneous generation of neural precursor cell cultures, as either adherent monolayers or neurospheres, from the subventricular zone and dentate gyrus of individual adult mice.

Bir Fare, İki Kültür: İzolasyon ve Yetişkin Nöral Kültür Bireysel Farelerde iki Nörojenik Bölgeler&#39;den Kök Hücre

The neurosphere assay and the adherent monolayer culture system are valuable tools to determine the potential (proliferation or differentiation) of adult ...

Feeder-free Derivation of Neural Crest Progenitor Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for studying human embryonic development, for modeling human diseases in the dish and as a source of transplantable cells for regenerative applications after disease or accidents. Neural crest (NC) cells are the precursors for a large variety of adult somatic cells, such as cells from the peripheral nervous system and glia, melanocytes and mesenchymal cells. They are a valuable source of cells to study aspects of human embryonic development, including cell fate specification and migration. Further differentiation of NC progenitor cells into terminally differentiated cell types offers the possibility to model human diseases in vitro, investigate disease mechanisms and generate cells for regenerative medicine. This article presents the adaptation of a currently available in vitro differentiation protocol for the derivation of NC cells from hPSCs. This new protocol requires 18 days of differentiation, is feeder-free, easily scalable and highly reproducible among human embryonic stem cell (hESC) lines as well as human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) lines. Both old and new protocols yield NC cells of equal identity.

Neural crest (NC) cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) have great potential for modeling human development and disease and for cell replacement therapies. Here, a feeder-free adaptation of the currently widely used in vitro differentiation protocol for the derivation of NC cells from hPSCs is presented.

İnsan Pluripotent dan Sinir Crest Progenitör Hücreler besleyici ücretsiz Derivasyon Kök Hücre

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for studying human embryonic development, for modeling human diseases in the dish and as a ...

Cell Sorting of Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells from the Adult Mouse Subventricular Zone and Live-imaging of their Cell Cycle Dynamics

Neural stem cells (NSCs) in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles (SVZ) sustain olfactory neurogenesis throughout life in the mammalian brain. They successively generate transit amplifying cells (TACs) and neuroblasts that differentiate into neurons once they integrate the olfactory bulbs. Emerging fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS) techniques have allowed the isolation of NSCs as well as their progeny and have started to shed light on gene regulatory networks in adult neurogenic niches. We report here a cell sorting technique that allows to follow and distinguish the cell cycle dynamics of the above-mentioned cell populations from the adult SVZ with a LeX/EGFR/CD24 triple staining. Isolated cells are then plated as adherent cells to explore in details their cell cycle progression by time-lapse video microscopy. To this end, we use transgenic Fluorescence Ubiquitination Cell Cycle Indicator (FUCCI) mice in which cells are red-fluorescent during G1 phase due to a G1 specific red-Cdt1 reporter. This method has recently revealed that proliferating NSCs progressively lengthen their G1 phase during aging, leading to neurogenesis impairment. This method is easily transposable to other systems and could be of great interest for the study of the cell cycle dynamics of brain cells in the context of brain pathologies.

We report a Fluorescent Activated Cell Sorting (FACS)-based method to isolate neural stem cells (NSCs) and their progeny from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the adult mouse brain. Applied to Fluorescence Ubiquitination Cell Cycle Indicator (FUCCI) transgenic mice, it allows the study of cell cycle progression by live imaging.

Hücre Yetişkin Fare subventricular Bölgesinden Nöral Kök ve Progenitör Hücreler Sıralama ve Hücre Döngüsü Dynamics Canlı görüntüleme

Neural stem cells (NSCs) in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles (SVZ) sustain olfactory neurogenesis throughout life in the mammalian brain. ...

Isolation and Culture of Adult Neural Stem Cells from the Mouse Subcallosal Zone

Adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) can be used for the regeneration of damaged brain tissue. NSCs have the potential for differentiation and proliferation into three types of cells: neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Identifying aNSC-derived regions and characterizing the aNSC properties are critical for the potential use of aNSCs and for the elucidation of their role in neural regeneration. The subcallosal zone (SCZ), located between white matter and the hippocampus, has recently been reported to contain aNSCs and continuously give rise to neuroblasts. A low percentage of aNSCs from the SCZ is differentiated into neurons; most cells are differentiated into glial cells, such as oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. These cells are suggested to have a therapeutic potential for traumatic cortical injury. This protocol describes in detail the process to generate SCZ-aNSCs from an adult mouse brain. A brain matrix with intervals of 1 mm is used to obtain the SCZ-containing coronal slices and to precisely dissect the SCZ from the whole brain. The SCZ sections are initially subjected to a neurosphere culture. A well-developed culture system allows for the verification of their characteristics and can increase research on NSCs. A neurosphere culture system provides a useful tool for determining proliferation and collecting the genuine NSCs. A monolayer culture is also an in vitro system to assay proliferation and differentiation. Significantly, this culture system provides a more homogenous environment for NSCs than the neurosphere culture system. Thus, using a discrete brain region, these culture systems will be helpful for expanding our knowledge about aNSCs and their applications for therapeutic uses.

Establishing culture systems for the expansion of adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) allows for the examination and application of aNSCs for therapy. The subcallosal zone (SCZ) has recently been recognized as a novel neuroblast-forming region in adult mice. Here, methods for the isolation, expansion, and differentiation of SCZ-aNSCs are described.

Fare Subcallosal Zone İzolasyon ve Yetişkin Nöral Kök Hücre Kültürü

Adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) can be used for the regeneration of damaged brain tissue. NSCs have the potential for differentiation and proliferation ...

Use of Synaptic Zinc Histochemistry to Reveal Different Regions and Laminae in the Developing and Adult Brain

Characterization of anatomical and functional brain organization and development requires accurate identification of distinct neural circuits and regions in the immature and adult brain. Here we describe a zinc histochemical staining procedure that reveals differences in staining patterns among different layers and brain regions. Others have utilized this procedure not only to reveal the distribution of zinc-containing neurons and circuits in the brain, but also to successfully delineate areal and laminar boundaries in the developing and adult brain in several species. Here we illustrate this staining procedure with images from developing and adult ferret brains. We reveal a zinc-staining pattern that serves as an anatomical marker of areas and layers, and can be reliably used to distinguish visual cortical areas in the developing and adult visual cortex. The main goal of this protocol is to present a histochemical method that allows the accurate identification of layers and regions in the developing and adult brain where other methods fail to do so. Secondarily, in conjunction with densitometric image analysis, this method allows one to assess the distribution of synaptic zinc to reveal potential changes throughout development. This protocol describes in detail the reagents, tools, and steps necessary to successively stain frozen brain sections. Although this protocol is described using ferret brain tissue, it can easily be adapted for use in rodents, cats, or monkeys as well as in other brain regions.

We describe a histochemical procedure that reveals characteristic laminar and areal zinc staining patterns in different brain regions. The zinc-staining pattern may be used in conjunction with other anatomical markers to reliably distinguish layers and regions in the developing and adult brain.

Farklı bölge ve lamina gelişmekte olan ve yetişkin beyninin ortaya çıkarmak için sinaptik çinko Histochemistry kullanımı

Characterization of anatomical and functional brain organization and development requires accurate identification of distinct neural circuits and regions ...

Collection of Frozen Rodent Brain Regions for Downstream Analyses

As our understanding of neurobiology has progressed, molecular analyses are often performed on small brain areas such as the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) or nucleus accumbens. The challenge in this work is to dissect the correct area while preserving the microenvironment to be examined. In this paper, we describe a simple, low-cost method using resources readily available in most labs. This method preserves nucleic acid and proteins by keeping the tissue frozen throughout the process. Brains are cut into 0.5&#8211;1.0 mm sections using a brain matrix and arranged on a frozen glass plate. Landmarks within each section are compared to a reference, such as the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas, and regions are dissected using a cold scalpel or biopsy punch. Tissue is then stored at -80 &#176;C until use. Through this process rat and mouse mPFC, nucleus accumbens, dorsal and ventral hippocampus and other regions have been successfully analyzed using qRT-PCR and Western assays. This method is limited to brain regions that can be identified by clear landmarks.

This procedure describes the collection of discrete frozen brain regions to obtain high-quality protein and RNA using inexpensive and commonly available tools.

Downstream Analizleri için Dondurulmuş Kemirgen Beyin Bölgeleri Koleksiyonu

As our understanding of neurobiology has progressed, molecular analyses are often performed on small brain areas such as the medial prefrontal cortex ...

Intra-Arterial Delivery of Neural Stem Cells to the Rat and Mouse Brain: Application to Cerebral Ischemia

Neural stem cell (NSC) therapy is an emerging innovative treatment for stroke, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. As compared to intracranial delivery, intra-arterial administration of NSCs is less invasive and produces a more diffuse distribution of NSCs within the brain parenchyma. Further, intra-arterial delivery allows the first-pass effect in the brain circulation, lessening the potential for trapping of cells in peripheral organs, such as liver and spleen, a complication associated with peripheral injections. Here, we detail the methodology, in both mice and rats, for delivery of NSCs through the common carotid artery (mouse) or external carotid artery (rat) to the ipsilateral hemisphere after an ischemic stroke. Using GFP-labeled NSCs, we illustrate the widespread distribution achieved throughout the rodent ipsilateral hemisphere at 1 d, 1 week and 4 weeks after postischemic delivery, with a higher density in or near the ischemic injury site. In addition to long-term survival, we show evidence of differentiation of GFP-labeled cells at 4 weeks. The intra-arterial delivery approach described here for NSCs can also be used for administration of therapeutic compounds, and thus has broad applicability to varied CNS injury and disease models across multiple species.

A method for delivering neural stem cells, adaptable for injecting solutions or suspensions, through the common carotid artery (mouse) or external carotid artery (rat) after ischemic stroke is reported. Injected cells are distributed broadly throughout the brain parenchyma and can be detected up to 30 d after delivery.

Nöral Kök Hücrelerin Sıçan ve Fare Beynine İntra-Arteriyel Teslimatı: Serebral İskemiye Uygulama

Neural stem cell (NSC) therapy is an emerging innovative treatment for stroke, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. As compared to ...