This work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 within the LDRD program.

Polisaj ve Slurry hazırlanması 1. İlk Yakınsak Cila Sistemi hazırlamak (I Bağımsız Yüzey nitial, özellikle C onvergent denilen, S ingle yineleme, R ogue Parçacık-Free polisaj veya Cisr (telaffuz &#39;makas&#39;)) pad ve septum, klima ped yükleyerek 7,17, seyreltilmesi ve kimyasal çamurun stabilize ve filtrasyon sistemi içinde bulamaç içeren. <ol><li> Cisr parlatıcı üzerinde, granit tur tabanı üzerine poliüretan pedi bağlı. Bir kenarı ped uyun ve hava boşlukları en aza indirmek için rakip kenarına doğru yönde basınç uygulayın. Taşkın takımını Trim ve sonra delinme ve gerekirse hava kabarcıklarını çıkarmak için bir jilet ve rulo kullanın. </li><li> İlk kullanımda ve her ~ 100 saat sonraCMP elmas kremi kullanarak pedi, parlatma elmas durumun r (50 mm çap; 0.6 psi basınç uygulanan, 5 dk beklemenin 25 mm boşluk artışlarla her radyal tur yerde; tur dönüşü 25 rpm) akan DI su ile. </li><li> Akan DI suyla, parlatma yineleme arasında, bir in-situ ultrasonik temizleyici (bindirme rotasyon 5 dak ~ her radyal konumda 2 dakika bekleme) ile pedi kalan bulamaç ve cam ürünlerin çıkartılması. </li><li> Benzersiz şeklinde septum ağırlığına, çift taraflı köpük bant ve ardından septum malzeme (örneğin, ön-kesme cam veya diğer non-giyen malzeme) yapışır. Septum malzeme ve ağırlık şekline uygun sarkık bir köpük bandı kesin. Septum tasarımı (şekil ve ağırlık hem) iş parçası ve turun 7,17 farklı boyutları için değiştirir. </li><li> Hacimce karışımı, özellikle (Baume 4 konsantrasyona kadar bulamaç parlatma Hazırlama ~ bir 11 L met 1 kısım seryum oksit parlatma bulamaç ve ~ 9 parça deiyonize (Dİ) sucket). Bir Baume şamandıra kullanarak Baume edin. 9.5 pH değerinin ve ~ özel yüzey 19 içeren 120 ml (1% hacim) eklemek için KOH (10 M) ~ 5 ml ilave edilir. PH ve Baume parlatma her 24 saat yeniden ayarlayın. </li><li> Filtrasyon sistemine hazırlanmış bulamaç ile kova takın. Sonra filtrasyon sistemine istenen CMP parçacık filtreleri yükleyin. Bir kaç saat için filtreleme sistemi içinde bulamaç sirküle olsun. </li><li> Bulamaç Tedbir tanecik boyut dağılımı (örneğin, tek parçacık optik algılama teknikleri kullanılarak) dağıtım kuyruk ucunu sağlamak için yeterli sahte parçacık içermeyen 9,20 olduğunu. </li></ol> İş parçası (yakma ve Engelleme) 2. Hazırlık Parlatma önce, kimyasal hasar 21 taşlama alt yüzeyi kaldırmak için gerekli malzeme kaldırma miktarını azaltmak için alınan-ince öğütülmüş iş parçasını etch. Boy oranı (yani, uzunluk / kalınlık)&gt; 1 ise Ardından, (iş parçası blok0) engelleme ve 22 parlatma sırasında eğilme gelen parçayı önlemek için yeni bir perde düğmesi engelleme (PBB) tekniği kullanılarak. <ol><li> NH4 F: 6 saat boyunca (6: (TTKB) 3x DI su ile seyreltildi 1 tamponlu oksit oyma) çıkarılması ince öğütülmüş iş parçasının (özellikle bir 265 x 265 x 8 mm, 3 kaynaşık silika camı düz) HF ile dolu bir tank içinde Etch iş parçası yüzeyinden cam 10 um. DİKKAT! BOE son derece tehlikelidir; Uygun kişisel koruyucu ekipman (KKE) giyerler. Aşındırma tankından parçasını çıkarın ve agresif DI suyla durulayın ve iş parçasını havaya parça dikey kurumasını bekleyin. </li><li> Karanlık bir odada parlak bir ışık denetimi kullanarak taşlama işlemi sırasında derin hasar için iş parçasını kontrol edin. Hiçbir derin hasar tespit edilirse, başka yeniden taşlama için geri parçayı göndermek, bir sonraki adıma geçin. </li><li> Bir tutkal gun sahayı engelleme ısıtın karşısında üzerine sahanın ~ 95 ºC ve yer damlacıkları (de denir düğmeleri) (~ 0.06 g)9 x 9 dizideki engelleme plakası (26 mm aralıkla 81 düğmeleri). Farklı boyut iş parçaları için, ideal sayı, boyut kuralları ve saha düğmesinin 22 aralıkları tasarımı bakın. Uygulanan düğmeler 70 ° C&#39;de önceden ısıtılmış fırında yüz yukarı engelleme plakasını yerleştirin ºC. </li><li> Cilalı için değil iş parçasının yüzüne bandı uygulayın. Hava kabarcıkları üreten veya aşırı bant germe kaçının. </li><li> Fırında engelleme plakası üzerindeki düğmeler üzerine aşağı bant yan yüzü ile iş parçasını yerleştirin. Konvektif akışını en aza indirmek için parça-düğme-blok örtün. 1.5 saat sonra, oda sıcaklığına kadar 10 ° C / saat soğumaya fırın ayarlayın. Soğuduktan sonra, bloke iş parçası üzerinde zift kalınlığı ~ 1 mm olmalıdır. </li></ol> 3. Yakınsak Polisaj <ol><li> Parlatma sırasında kurumasını önlemek için bulamaç Cisr parlatıcı çevre odasındaki nem sistemi açın ve parçayı tırmalama haydut parçacıkları en aza indirmek için. </li><li> Insuzun boylu ve parlatıcı içine özel olarak tasarlanmış ve hazırlanmış septum monte edin. İş parçasını tutmak için Cisr parlatıcı ve alt bom içine PBB parçasını takın. </li><li> 75 mm ~ bir radyal inme ve 1 galon / dakika filtrasyon sistemi, bir harç akışı ile 25 rpm&#39;lik bir eşleştirilmiş tur ve iş parçasının bir dönme hızında 4 saat Cisr ile Polonya iş parçası. NOT: 0.6 psi basınç uygulanan iş parçası üzerinde yükleme ağırlığı ilgili olarak engelleme plakası da hizmet vermektedir. </li><li> Tur ve iş parçası dönme ve çamur akışını kapatın. Cisr parlatıcı gelen PBB parçasını çıkarın ve DI su dolu banyo içine batırın. Batık ise temiz oda bezle parça yüzeyini silin. DI su ile durulayın banyodan PBB parçasını çıkarın ve sprey. </li><li> İş parçası blok arayüzü bir dolgu takarak Deblock iş parçası. Malzeme yüzeyi bandı çıkarın. Agresif DI su ve kuru hava ile iş parçasını durulayın. </li><li> PBB Sonra po tekrar Bölüm 2&#39;de açıklandığı gibi iş parçasının karşıt yüzüBölüm 3&#39;te açıklanan prosedür Publishing. </li></ol> 4. Metroloji ve Denetim <ol><li> Ölçü bir interferometre ile iş parçasının her iki dalga cephesi (yani, yüzey şekil) ve aynı zamanda iletilen wavefront yansıtmaktadır. </li><li> Dağı parlak ışık muayene istasyonunda iş parçası ve optik fabrikasyon standart yöntemler kullanılarak çizik / kazı özelliklerini ölçmek. Aşama 2.1 &#39;de tarif edildiği gibi, iş parçasının bir kısa BOE aşındırma, yüksek akıcılık lazer uygulamalarında kullanılan iş parçaları için gizli çizikler ortaya çıkarmak için kullanılabilir. Iş parçası ince çizikler veya pürüzlülük ölçümü için standart optik mikroskopi ya da beyaz ışık interferometrisinin bir kullanılabilmektedir. </li><li> Mağaza parçasının yüzü olan bir kap minimize temas parçasını tamamladı. </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Giriş bölümünde tartışıldığı gibi ortadan kaldırmak ya da bağlı parça şekline parça-kucak uyumsuzluğu dışında mekansal maddi olmayan tekdüzelik etkileyen tüm olayları en aza içerir, yakınsak başarılı bir şekilde uygulanması rakam yüzey ile ilgili Parlatma. Bu olayların herhangi bir uygun, ya proses kontrolü yoluyla veya parlatıcı, ardından istediğiniz yakınsama noktası elde veya muhafaza edilemez uygun mühendislik yoluyla azaltılabilir değilse; dolayısıyla aslında her azaltma...

Tipik bir optik üretim sürecinde önemli adımlar şekillendirme, taşlama, tam diyafram parlatma ve 1-3 parlatma bazen küçük bir araç içerir. Görüntüleme ve lazer sistemleri için yüksek kaliteli optik bileşenler için artan talebi ile, son birkaç yılda optik üretiminde önemli gelişmeler olmuştur. Örneğin, hassasiyet için, deterministik kazıma (CNC) cam şekillendirme makineleri Kontrollü Bilgisayar Sayısal gelişmeler ile şekillendirme ve öğütme işlemleri sırasında artık mümkün. Benzer şekilde, küçük bir araç parlatma teknolojileri (örneğin, bilgisayar kontrollü optik kaplama (CCOS), iyon endam, ve manyeto-reolojik terbiye (HÖH)) böylece güçlü optik imalat sektörü etkileyen, deterministik malzeme kaldırma ve yüzey şekil denetimi yol açmıştır. Ancak, terbiye süreci, tam diyafram parlatma ara adım, hala tipik yetenekli opticia gerektiren, yüksek determinizm yoksunns, birden yürütmek için genellikle birden fazla süreç değişiklikleri ile uzun, tekrarlı çevrim istenen yüzey şekil 1-3 ulaşmak için. parlatma yöntemleri, süreç değişkenleri ve karmaşık kimyasal ve iş parçası, kucak ve bulamaç 3-4 arasındaki mekanik etkileşimlerin çok sayıda zorlu bir bilim bir &#39;sanat&#39; optik parlatma dönüştürmeye yaptık. Deterministik tam diyafram parlatma elde etmek için, kazıma iyi anlaşılması gerekir. Tarihsel, kazıma yaygın olarak kullanılan Preston denklemi 5 tarafından tarif edilmiştir <img alt="Denklem 1" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" width="100px" /> (1) dh / dt ortalama kalınlığı kaldırma oranı olduğu, k p Preston sabiti, σ o isimli birUygulanan basınç, ve V r iş parçası ve kucak arasındaki ortalama bağıl hızıdır. şematik mekansal ve zamansal hız varyasyonları ve basınç arasındaki farklar da dahil olmak üzere, Preston Denklemi açıklandığı gibi kazıma etkileyen fiziksel kavramları tasvir Şekil 1 uygulanan basınç ve basınç dağılımı parça deneyimleri ve sürtünme etkileri 6-8. Özel olarak, iş parçası ile yaşanan gerçek basınç dağılımının, büyük ölçüde, iş parçasının yüzeyi, şekil elde edilen etki (ayrıntılı olarak başka 6-8 tarif edilmiştir) fenomeni, bir dizi ile idare edilir. Ayrıca, Preston Eşitlik, mikroskobik ve moleküler düzeyde etkileri büyük ölçüde genel kazıma, mikro-pürüzleri ve hatta iş parçası üzerinde çizilmeye etkiler makroskopik Preston sabiti (k p), içine katlanır. Çeşitli çalışmalar hesap Preston modelini genişlettik<html> mikroskobik parçacık bulamaç-pad-iş parçası etkileşimleri kazıma ve microroughness 9-16 açıklamak için. Tam diyafram parlatma sırasında yüzey şeklin belirleyici kontrol elde etmek için, yukarıda tarif edilen olayların her biri anlaşılacaktır ölçülmesi ve daha sonra kontrol edilmesi gerekmektedir. Yakınsak Parlatma arkasındaki strateji ya mühendislik parlatıcı tasarımı sayesinde veya kaldırma nedeniyle parça şekline parça-kucak uyumsuzluğu sadece tahrik öyle ki süreç kontrolü ile, ortadan kaldırmak ya da düzgün olmayan malzeme çıkarılması istenmeyen nedenleri en aza indirmek için 7,17- 18. Şekil 2 parça şekil parça-kucak uyumsuzluğu kavramına dayalı yakınsama yol açabilir nasıl göstermektedir. Düz bir tur ve sol üst kısmında gösterilen karmaşık bir şekil varsayımsal iş parçasını düşünün. (boşluk, SH oL olarak anılacaktır) arayüzü yüksekliği uyuşmazlığı gibi arayüz basınç dağılımı (σ) etkiler: içeriği &quot;fo: keep-together.within sayfa =&quot; always &quot;&gt; <img alt="Denklem 2" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" width="100px" /> (2) h sabit anlatan hızıdır hangi basınç farkı SH oL 6 artış ile azalır. Bu örnekte, iş parçası parlatma sırasında en yüksek ilk kazıma gözlemlemek olacaktır merkezinde en yüksek yerel basınç (Şekil 2 alt sol bakınız), ve dolayısıyla bu konuma sahiptir. Malzeme bertaraf gibi, iş parçası üzerindeki basınç farkı, çalışma parçası tur uyumsuzluğu bir azalmaya bağlı olarak azalır ve malzeme turun şekil yakınsar. Yakınsama, iş parçası basınç dağılımı ve dolayısıyla kazıma anda, (Şekil 2 sağ tarafını bakınız) iş parçası boyunca tek olacak. Bu örnek ancak buradan, düz bir tur için gösterilmiştirer, aynı kavram (içbükey veya dışbükey ya) bir küresel tur için geçerlidir. Mekansal malzeme olmayan tekdüzelik etkileyen tüm diğer fenomenler elimine edilmiş Yine, bu yakınsama süreci yalnızca çalışır. Yakınsak parlatılması protokolünde uygulanan spesifik prosedür ve mühendislik azaltıcı Tartışma tarif edilmiştir. Aşağıdaki çalışmada açıklanan protokol ince öğütülmüş yüzeyinden başlayarak 26.5 cm&#39;lik kare erimiş silis cam iş parçası için özel Yakınsak parlatma süreçtir. Parlatma 8 saat (4 saat / yüzey), bu iş parçası çok yüksek yüzey kalitesi (yani, düşük çizik yoğunluğu) ile ~ λ / 2 cilalı düzlük elde edebilirsiniz.

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convergent polishing: a simple, rapid, full aperture polishing process of high quality optical flats &amp; spheres

Yakınsak Polisaj ilk şekli bağımsız bir iş parçası, (yani, yüzey şekil), bir sabit, değişmeyen kümesi altında mükemmel yüzey kalitesi ile son yüzey rakam yakınsama hangi düz ve küresel cam optik sonlandırma için yeni bir parlatma sistemi ve yöntemi olduğunu Tek bir parlatma tekrarında parametreleri parlatma. Buna karşılık, geleneksel tam diyafram parlatma yöntemleri, istenen yüzey rakam elde etmek için parlatma, metroloji ve süreç değişiklikleri içeren çoklu, genellikle uzun, iteratif döngüleri gerektirir. Yakınsak Polisaj işlemi kucağına şekline yakınsak parçada kaldırılması ve sonuçları ile azalır basınç farkı ile sonuçlanan iş parçası-kucak yüksekliği uyumsuzluğu kavramına dayanmaktadır. Yakınsak Polisaj işlemi başarılı bir şekilde uygulanması parça-kucak dışında düzgün olmayan mekansal malzeme kaldırma (bütün kaynaklarını çıkarmak için teknolojilerin bir dizi kombinasyonu bir sonucudurYüzey rakam yakınsama uyumsuzluğu) ve düşük yoğunlukları çizilmeye ve düşük pürüzlülük için sistemde kötü niyetli parçacıkların sayısını azaltmak için. Yakınsak Polisaj işlemi çeşitli cam malzemelerin hem daire ve çeşitli şekillerde, boyutlarda küreler, ve boy oranları imalatı için gösterilmiştir. Pratik etkisi yüksek kaliteli optik bileşenler alt birim maliyetleri sonuçlanan, daha az metroloji ile, ve daha az emek ile daha tekrar tekrar, daha hızlı imal edilebilir olmasıdır. Bu çalışmada, Yakınsak Cila protokolü özellikle kare bir 81 cm çapında parlatıcı yüzeye başına 4 saat parlatma sonra bir cilalı ~ λ / 2 yüzey şekil ince bir toprak yüzeyinden silika daireler kaynaşmış 26.5 cm imalatı için tarif edilmiştir.

Yakınsak parlatılması protokolü, yukarıda tarif edilen bir tepe girinti-çıkıntı düzlüğü, yüzey başına 4 saatlik tek bir yineleme, cilalı (bu durumda, bir 26.5 sm kare) bir zemin kaynaşık silika iş parçasını sağlar ~ λ / 2 (R düşük en-boy oranı, iş parçaları ve yüksek en-boy oranı, iş parçaları için ~ 1λ (~ 633 nm) için 330 nm) () bakınız Şekil 3. Yine, bu süreç tekrar tekrar parlatma parametrelerine değişiklik gerektirmeden aynı nihai yüzey rakam parçala...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres at JoVE.com

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

A novel optical polishing process, called &#8220;Convergent Polishing&#8221;, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

Yakınsak Polisaj: Yüksek Kaliteli Optik Flats &amp; Kürelerin Basit, Hızlı, Tam Diyafram Parlatma İşlemi

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial ...

convergent-polishing-simple-rapid-full-aperture-polishing-process

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats &amp; Spheres

11.0K Görüntüleme.  Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. A novel optical polishing process, called “Convergent Polishing”, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

Video: Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

Silika Ultra Yüksek Kalite Faktörü Microresonators Fabrikasyon

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

Mühendislik

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

Galeri Modu Polimerik Mikro-optik Elektrik Alan Sensörleri Whispering Gelişimi

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

Mikrodalga Fotonik Sistemleri Whispering-galeri-mod Rezonatörler dayanarak

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the standard quantum limit or to cool mechanical systems to their quantum ground state. This is for example the case of future gravitational wave observatories, whose sensitivity to gravitational wave signals is expected to be limited in the most sensitive frequency band, by atomic vibration of their mirror masses. One promising approach being pursued to overcome this limitation is to employ higher-order Laguerre-Gauss (LG) optical beams in place of the conventionally used fundamental mode. Owing to their more homogeneous light intensity distribution these beams average more effectively over the thermally driven fluctuations of the mirror surface, which in turn reduces the uncertainty in the mirror position sensed by the laser light.
We demonstrate a promising method to generate higher-order LG beams by shaping a fundamental Gaussian beam with the help of diffractive optical elements. We show that with conventional sensing and control techniques that are known for stabilizing fundamental laser beams, higher-order LG modes can be purified and stabilized just as well at a comparably high level. A set of diagnostic tools allows us to control and tailor the properties of generated LG beams. This enabled us to produce an LG beam with the highest purity reported to date. The demonstrated compatibility of higher-order LG modes with standard interferometry techniques and with the use of standard spherical optics makes them an ideal candidate for application in a future generation of high-precision interferometry.

Large laser-interferometers are being constructed to create a new type of astronomy based on gravitational waves. Their sensitivities, as for many other high-precision experiments, are approaching fundamental noise limits such as the atomic vibration of their components. We are pioneering technologies to overcome these limits using novel laser beam shapes.

Yüksek hassasiyetli İnterferometre için Yüksek mertebeden Laguerre-Gauss Optik Kirişlerin Üretimi

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several  types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the  ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

Işık Enine Anderson lokalizasyonu Düzensiz Polimer Fiber Optik imalatı ve Karakterizasyonu

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

Mikrosferik Whispering Galeri Modu Rezonatörler içinde Uyarılmış Stokes ve Antistokes Raman saçılması

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

Optik Rezonatör ve Lazer Uygulamalarında Polimer Mikrokürelerin Üretimi

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Demonstration of a Hyperlens-integrated Microscope and Super-resolution Imaging

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and nanotechnology. Although near-field scanning microscopy and superlenses have improved the resolution in the near-field region, far-field imaging in real-time remains a significant challenge. Recently, the hyperlens, which magnifies and converts evanescent waves into propagating waves, has emerged as a novel approach to far-field imaging. Here, we report the fabrication of a spherical hyperlens composed of alternating silver (Ag) and titanium oxide (TiO2) thin layers. Unlike a conventional cylindrical hyperlens, the spherical hyperlens allows for two-dimensional magnification. Thus, incorporation into conventional microscopy is straightforward. A new optical system integrated with the hyperlens is proposed, allowing for a sub-wavelength image to be obtained in the far-field region in real time. In this study, the fabrication and imaging setup methods are explained in detail. This work also describes the accessibility and possibility of the hyperlens, as well as practical applications of real-time imaging in living cells, which can lead to a revolution in biology and nanotechnology.

The use of a hyperlens has been regarded as a novel super-resolution imaging technique due to its advantages in real-time imaging and its simple implementation with conventional optics. Here, we present a protocol describing the fabrication and imaging applications of a spherical hyperlens.

Gösteri bir mikroskop Hyperlens entegre ve süper kararlılık düşsel

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and ...

Rapid Optical Clearing for Semi-High-Throughput Analysis of Tumor Spheroids

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the spheroid at the cellular level is important for analysis, yet existing techniques are often expensive, laborious, use non-standard equipment, cause significant size distortion, or are limited to relatively small spheroids. This protocol presents a new method of mounting and clearing spheroids that address these issues while allowing for confocal analysis of the inner structure of spheroids. In contrast to existing approaches, this protocol provides for rapid mounting and clearing of a large number of spheroids using standard equipment and laboratory supplies. Mounting spheroids in a pH-neutral agarose-PBS gel solution before introducing a refractive-index-matched clearing solution minimizes size distortion common to other similar techniques. This allows for detailed quantitative and statistical analysis where the accuracy of size measurements is paramount. Furthermore, compared to liquid clearing solutions, the agarose gel technique keeps spheroids fixed in place, allowing for the collection of three-dimensional (3D) confocal images. The present article elaborates how the method yields high-quality two- and 3D images that provide information about inter-cell variability and inner spheroid structure.

Tumor spheroids are becoming increasingly utilized to assess tumor cell-microenvironment interactions and therapy response. The present protocol describes a robust but simple method for semi-high-throughput imaging of 3D tumor spheroids using rapid optical clearing.

Tümör Sferoidlerinin Yarı Yüksek Verimli Analizi için Hızlı Optik Temizleme

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the ...

Kanser Araştırmaları

Eser Gaz Spektroskopisinde Uygulama için Bir Fabry-Pérot Etalon İmalatı

Fabrication of a Low-Cost, Fiber-Coupled, and Air-Spaced Fabry-P&#233;rot Etalon

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are used for their high sensitivity as well as their exceptional filtering capability. However, air-spaced etalons with high finesse are usually built by specialized facilities. Their production requires a clean room, special glass handling, and coating machinery, meaning commercially available FPEs are sold for a high price. In this article, a new and cost-effective method to fabricate fiber-coupled FPEs with standard photonic laboratory equipment is presented. The protocol should serve as a step-by-step guide for the construction and characterization of these FPEs. We hope this&#160;will enable researchers to conduct fast and cost-effective prototyping of FPEs for various fields of application. The FPE, as presented here, is used for spectroscopic applications. As shown in the representative results section via proof of principle measurements of water vapor in ambient air, this FPE has a finesse of 15, which is sufficient for the photothermal detection of trace concentrations of gases.

Yazar Spot Işığı: Düşük Maliyetli, Elyaf Bağlantılı ve Hava Aralıklı Fabry-Pérot Etalon'un İmalatı  

This protocol describes the construction of a low-cost, discrete, fiber-coupled, and air-spaced Fabry-Perot etalon with various applications, such as in trace-gas spectroscopy. The fabrication is possible in any facility with standard optical laboratory equipment available.

Düşük maliyetli, fiber bağlantılı ve hava aralıklı Fabry-Pérot etalon imalatı

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are ...

Yakınsak Polisaj: Yüksek Kaliteli Optik Flats & Kürelerin Basit, Hızlı, Tam Diyafram Parlatma İşlemi

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