This work was supported by a V scholar award (V2014-004) and a V scholar plus award (D2016-030) from the V Foundation for Cancer Research, and an American Cancer Society Institutional Research Grant (ACS IRG Grant 58-006-53) to the Purdue University Center for Cancer Research. E. G. P. was supported by the Borch Graduate Endowment Award to the Purdue University Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology Department.

1. Preparations
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 100 mL of hypotonic solution Buffer A: 0.3 M sucrose, 60 mM KCl, 60 mM Tris pH 8.0, 2 mM EDTA, and 0.5% NP-40. Store at 4 &#186;C. 
	NOTE: Some cell lines, such as HEK293T, require less stringent lysing conditions. If nuclei lyse easily, use Modified Buffer A: 25 mM HEPES pH 7.6, 25 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl2, 0.05 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40, and 10% glycerol.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 250 mL stock solution of 2x mRIPA solution: 100 mM Tris pH 8.0, 2% NP-40, and 0.5% sodium deoxycholate.</l...

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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perceiving+the+epigenetic+landscape+through+histone+readers.">Perceiving the epigenetic landscape through histone readers.</a> Nat Struct Mol Biol. 19 (12), 1218-1227 (2012).</li><li>Furey, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ChIP-seq+and+beyond:+new+and+improved+methodologies+to+detect+and+characterize+protein-DNA+interactions.">ChIP-seq and beyond: new and improved methodologies to detect and characterize protein-DNA interactions.</a> Nat Rev Genet. 13 (12), 840-852 (2012).</li><li>Skene, P. J., Henikoff, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+efficient+targeted+nuclease+strategy+for+high-resolution+mapping+of+DNA+binding+sites.">An efficient targeted nuclease strategy for high-resolution mapping of DNA binding sites.</a> eLife. 6, (2017).</li><li>Wu, S. Y., Lee, A. Y., Lai, H. T., Zhang, H., Chiang, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phospho+switch+triggers+brd4+chromatin+binding+and+activator+recruitment+for+gene-specific+targeting.">Phospho switch triggers brd4 chromatin binding and activator recruitment for gene-specific targeting.</a> Mol Cell. 49 (5), 843-857 (2013).</li><li>Porter, E. G., Dykhuizen, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Individual+bromodomains+of+Polybromo-1+contribute+to+chromatin+association+and+tumor+suppression+in+clear+cell+renal+carcinoma.">Individual bromodomains of Polybromo-1 contribute to chromatin association and tumor suppression in clear cell renal carcinoma.</a> J Biol Chem. 292 (7), 2601-2610 (2017).</li><li>Kerppola, T. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polycomb+group+complexes--many+combinations,+many+functions.">Polycomb group complexes--many combinations, many functions.</a> Trends cell biol. 19 (12), 692-704 (2009).</li><li>Filippakopoulos, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+inhibition+of+BET+bromodomains.">Selective inhibition of BET bromodomains.</a> Nature. 468 (7327), 1067-1073 (2010).</li><li>Filippakopoulos, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histone+recognition+and+large-scale+structural+analysis+of+the+human+bromodomain+family.">Histone recognition and large-scale structural analysis of the human bromodomain family.</a> Cell. 149 (1), 214-231 (2012).</li><li>Sanchez, R., Zhou, M. -. 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Acta - Rev Cancer. 1845 (1), 84-89 (2014).</li><li>Kakarougkas, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Requirement+for+PBAF+in+Transcriptional+Repression+and+Repair+at+DNA+Breaks+in+Actively+Transcribed+Regions+of+Chromatin.">Requirement for PBAF in Transcriptional Repression and Repair at DNA Breaks in Actively Transcribed Regions of Chromatin.</a> Mol Cell. 55 (5), 723-732 (2014).</li><li>Lee, S. Y., Park, J. -. H., Kim, S., Park, E. -. 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The authors have no competing financial interests.

Characterization of protein and chromatin interactions through salt extractions is a common method that has been employed for decades14,15; however, it has not been systematically optimized before to reveal its full utility. We demonstrate how this sequential method provides a rapid and inexpensive way to distinguish changes in chromatin binding when the protein or the environment is altered. SSE is highly adaptable and optimizable, and importantly, it is technic...

DNA regulation in eukaryotic cells is an intricate and sophisticated system that is tightly controlled by an assortment of proteins that coordinate responses to intracellular and extracellular stimuli. DNA is wrapped around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, which can be loosely distributed along DNA or compacted into tight coils1. This structural arrangement of DNA and histones is known as chromatin, which is regulated by a network of proteins that read, write, and erase post translational modifications (PTM) on histones2. Some histone PTMs, such as acetylation, change the charge of the amino acid they are deposited on, altering interactions between histones and DNA2. Histone PTMs also serve to recruit transcriptional regulators, chromatin remodelers, DNA damage repair machinery, and DNA replication machinery to specific regions of the genome3.
Most methods for studying chromatin interactions either probe small scale interactions or involve large genome-wide analyses. In vitro binding studies often utilize individual recombinant domains with histone peptides or DNA in assays such as electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSA), isothermal titration calorimetry, fluorescence polarization, and peptide pulldowns. Because these assays typically focus on an individual protein domain, they facilitate the understanding of a small piece of the puzzle, but do not allow us to understand the cooperative nature of multi-domain proteins, let alone their role in multi-protein complexes. Another layer of intricacy is added by the heterogeneous composition of most mammalian chromatin-modifying complexes. This protein heterogeneity, in combination with the dynamic nature of the chromatin landscape, makes it challenging to recapitulate the in vivo binding interactions of chromatin proteins to chromatin in vitro.
In vivo methods have made significant advances; however, they are often expensive, time consuming, and technically challenging. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) is very useful for determining the localization of proteins and histone modifications across the genome, however it requires substantial optimization4. Proteins are often crosslinked to chromatin to preserve interactions; however, this can produce artificial interactions and may cause epitope masking5. Furthermore, the immunoprecipitations (IP) require highly specific antibodies, and extensive optimization of DNA shearing and IP conditions by ChIP-qPCR using a known binding site, which is often not available a priori. After optimization of ChIP conditions, processing of the samples is costly and requires several weeks to months to sequence and analyze. Though this method is invaluable for identifying the localization of chromatin bound proteins across the genome, the cost and time commitment make it prohibitive to use this method to generate hypotheses about how small changes may affect global binding properties.
In this paper, we describe how a sequential salt extraction (SSE) assay can be used to examine global binding profiles of chromatin-bound proteins and distinguish how changes in a protein, complex, or global PTM profile can alter interactions. Though salt extractions are a commonly and broadly used technique, we demonstrate how this sequential method is highly reproducible and versatile. SSE allows us to characterize how a single subunit of a complex or even a single domain contributes to the complex&#39;s overall affinity for bulk chromatin. SSE can also be used to determine if the binding of a protein is influenced by changes in chromatin landscape, providing interesting hypotheses for histone mark targeting that can be confirmed using ChIP-seq and other genome wide studies.
We originally adapted this method from Wu et al., to examine of the function of Polybromo1 (PBRM1) in the binding of the PBAF chromatin remodeler6,7. Using this technique, we determined the role of PBRM1 for chromatin binding within the PBAF chromatin remodeling complex and then determined the relative contribution of the six individual bromodomains to this function7.
Here we describe how to optimize this method to explore chromatin binding in different cell types, to assess the relative binding affinity of similar chromatin modifying complexes, to examine the displacement of a protein from chromatin by a chemical inhibitor, and to determine the effects of chromatin binding after alterations to the chromatin landscape.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride, Crystal 2.5 Kg AR (ACS)</td>
			<td>Avantor/Macron</td>
			<td>7581-06</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose, Crystal 500 G AR&#168; (ACS)</td>
			<td>Avantor/Macron</td>
			<td>8360-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride, Granular 500 G AR&#168; (ACS)</td>
			<td>Avantor/Macron</td>
			<td>6858-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma(R) base,Primary Standard and Buffer, &#62;=99.9% (titration), crystalline</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503-1kg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA (Ethylenedinitrilo) Tetraacetic Acid, Disodium Salt, Dihydrate 125 G AR (ACS)</td>
			<td>Avantor/Macron</td>
			<td>4931-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NONIDET P-40 SUBSTRATE, 100mL UN3082</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>E109-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES Buffer Solution (1M)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15630-080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride, 6-Hydrate, Crystal 500 G AR&#168; (ACS)</td>
			<td>Avantor/Macron</td>
			<td>5958-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GLYCEROL, 1L</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0854-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DEOXYCHOLIC ACID SODIUM SALT, 100g</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0613-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf Research plus pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-690-032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf 5424 R refrigerated microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5424 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Secondary mouse IgG HRP-linked</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>7076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Secondary rabbit IgG HRP-linked</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>7074</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BMI-1 antibody</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBRM1 antibody</td>
			<td>Bethyl</td>
			<td>A301-591A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ARID1a antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz</td>
			<td>sc-32761</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BRD4 antibody</td>
			<td>Bethyl</td>
			<td>A301-9852a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(+) JQ1</td>
			<td>Cayman Chemical Company</td>
			<td>11187</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SAHA</td>
			<td>Cayman Chemical Company</td>
			<td>10009929</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Doxorubicin</td>
			<td>AK Scientific</td>
			<td>25316-40-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Macron</td>
			<td>4948-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Trans-Blot Cell</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>1703930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Gel Tank</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>A25977</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Albumin, Bovine (BSA)</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0332-100g</td>
			<td>Used in as a 5% solution in PBS-T as blocking solution for Western blots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bolt MOPS SDS Running Buffer (20x)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>B0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bolt LDS Sample Buffer (4x)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>B0007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PageRuler Plus Prestained Protein Ladder, 10 to 250 kDa</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>26619</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methyl Alcohol, Anhydrous</td>
			<td>Macron</td>
			<td>3041-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin kEDTA, 1X</td>
			<td>Cellgro</td>
			<td>25-053-CI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SODIUM AZIDE, 250g UN1687</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0639-250G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE (SDS)500g UN1325</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0227-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine,for electrophoresis, &#62;=99%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8898-1kg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BigTop Microcentrifuge Tubes, Polypropylene</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20170-333</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 &#181;L Pipet Tips</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>83007-382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE Bis-Tris Precast Gels 4-12%</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>NW04125BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leupeptin Hemisulfate, 5 MG</td>
			<td>RPI Research Products</td>
			<td>22035-0.005</td>
			<td>Used for Protease inhibitor solution.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>APROTININ, 10 MG</td>
			<td>RPI Research Products</td>
			<td>20550-0.01</td>
			<td>Used for Protease inhibitor solution.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEPSTATIN A, 5 MG</td>
			<td>RPI Research Products</td>
			<td>30100-0.005</td>
			<td>Used for Protease inhibitor solution.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OVCA429 cells</td>
			<td>Gift from Karen Cowden Dahl. Ph.D.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293T</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-3216</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HeLa cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>McCoy&#39;s 5A media</td>
			<td>Corning Mediatech</td>
			<td>10-050-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Corning Mediatech</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minimum Essential Medium (MEM), Powder</td>
			<td>Corning Mediatech</td>
			<td>50-011-PC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM NEAA (100X) non-essential amino acid</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11140-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FB-11: Fetal Bovine Serum, U.S. Source</td>
			<td>Omega Scientific</td>
			<td>FB-11</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin Solution</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamax</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11360070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VWR Power Source</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>13-690-032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

sequential salt extractions for the analysis of bulk chromatin binding properties of chromatin modifying complexes

Elucidation of the binding properties of chromatin-targeting proteins can be very challenging due to the complex nature of chromatin and the heterogeneous nature of most mammalian chromatin-modifying complexes. In order to overcome these hurdles, we have adapted a sequential salt extraction (SSE) assay for evaluating the relative binding affinities of chromatin-bound complexes. This easy and straightforward assay can be used by non-experts to evaluate the relative difference in binding affinity of two related complexes, the changes in affinity of a complex when a subunit is lost or an individual domain is inactivated, and the change in binding affinity after alterations to the chromatin landscape. By sequentially re-suspending bulk chromatin in increasing amounts of salt, we are able to profile the elution of a particular protein from chromatin. Using these profiles, we are able to determine how alterations in a chromatin-modifying complex or alterations to the chromatin environment affect binding interactions. Coupling SSE with other in vitro and in vivo assays, we can determine the roles of individual domains and proteins on the functionality of a complex in a variety of chromatin environments.

In this paper, we demonstrate the advantages and applications of the commonly used sequential salt extraction (SSE) method that we have adapted from the literature6. In Figure 1, we compare the reproducibility of SSE to extracting proteins non-sequentially by detecting the elution patterns of ARID1a and PBRM1. We consistently observe that ARID1a, a BAF subunit, elutes primarily at 200 mM NaCl and PBRM1, an exclusive PBAF subunit, elute...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Sequential Salt Extractions for the Analysis of Bulk Chromatin Binding Properties of Chromatin Modifying Complexes at JoVE.com

Sequential Salt Extractions for the Analysis of Bulk Chromatin Binding Properties of Chromatin Modifying Complexes

Sequential salt extraction of chromatin bound proteins is a useful tool for determining the binding properties of large protein complexes. This method can be employed to evaluate the role of individual subunits or domains in the overall affinity of a protein complex to bulk chromatin.

Elucidation of the binding properties of chromatin-targeting proteins can be very challenging due to the complex nature of chromatin and the heterogeneous ...

The overall goal of the Sequential Salt Extraction procedure is to characterize protein binding profiles to bulk chromatin and to valuate how the binding is altered when the protein, or its environment, is manipulated. This method measures the relative affinity of epigenetic regulators to chromatin, and can be used to evaluate how those interactions change upon genetic, chemical, and environmental manipulation. The main advantage of this technique is that it is a quick and inexpensive way to evaluate the binding profiles of chromatin-binding proteins.Individuals new to the chromatin field often struggle with chromatin immunoprecipitation, or ChIP. Sequential Salt Extraction is an old technique that even inexperienced scientists can use to answer many of the same questions. To begin the procedure, harvest 8, 000, 000 cells from each cell line of interest.Wash each cell sample with five milliliters of ice cold PBS twice. Resuspend each sample and one milliliter of a hypotonic buffer with protease inhibitors. Transfer the cell suspensions to 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tubes.Rotate the suspensions, top over bottom, for 10 minutes at four-degree Celsius, and then centrifuge the suspension for five minutes at this same temperature at 6, 000 G's. Discard the supernatant. Equip a micro pipette with a one milliliter tip.Add to the pellet 200 microliters of salt-free modified ripa buffer with protease inhibitors. Tap the pipette tip against the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube to draw the pellet into the tip. Pipette the pellet up and down 15 times.The sample should become thick and sticky as the pellet breaks up. Homogenize each sample in this way and incubate the samples on ice for three minutes. Then centrifuge the samples at 6500 G's in four-degree Celsius for three minutes.Transfer the supernatants to clean 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tubes. To each pellet, add 200 milliliters of modified ripa buffer with 100 millimolar sodium chloride and with protease inhibitors. Pipette the pellet up and down 15 times.If the pellet is initially difficult to draw into the pipette tip, tap the tip on the bottom of the tube. Repeat this process for each sample and incubate the samples on ice for three minutes. Centrifuge the samples at 6500 G's in four-degree Celsius for three minutes.Transfer the supernatants to new 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tubes. Continue extracting samples into modified ripa buffer solutions with increasing sodium chloride concentrations. When the pellet no longer stays at the bottom of the tube, place the pellet in the centrifuge tube cap before decanting the supernatant.After the serial salt extraction, for each sample, add 70 milliliters of four times protein loading dye to each of the five supernatant fractions. Load 30 microliters of each fraction onto an SDS acrylamide gel. Perform a standard western blot by transferring the proteins to a membrane and staining with the appropriate primary antibodies.Incubate the blot in secondary antibodies labeled with an infrared dye and image the blot. Use image analysis software to calculate the band intensity of each salt concentration. Plot the band intensity against the salt concentration to determine the elution pattern of the protein of interest.Sequential Salt Extraction of the proteins ARID1a and Polybromo 1 showed consistent elution with salt concentrations of 200 and 300 millimolar, respectively. Non-sequential salt extraction of the same proteins showed less consistent results. The incubation time must be optimized for each protein being examined.Thus, SSE was used to examine elution profiles after varying incubation lengths. A transcriptional activator, Polybromo 1, showed similar elution profiles when incubated for three minutes and 10 minutes. The transcriptional repressor, Polycomb Repressive Complex 1, indicated by BMI1, needed more than three minutes to be released from chromatin.Protein-protein interactions were investigated by examining the change in elution profiles. In the presence of an inhibitor, bromodomain containing protein four alluded at lower salt concentrations than without the inhibitor. Differences in the histone patters were observed when cells were treated with a histone deacetylase inhibitor, altering the landscape of the chromatin.Changes in protein binding when cells experienced genomic stress were also reflected in elution profiles. Here, the increase in salt concentration needed for elution, suggested that Polybromo 1 binds more tightly to chromatin following DNA damage with Doxorubicin. Once mastered, this technique can be done in two to three hours if it is performed properly.While attempting this procedure, remember to be as consistent as possible with your treatment of each sample. This procedure can be used in the initial steps of a study to elucidate the mechanism and regulation of a chromatin-binding protein. This saves time and money on unnecessary genome-wide studies.

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JoVE Journal

Genetics

8.2K Görüntüleme.  Purdue University. The overall goal of the Sequential Salt Extraction procedure is to characterize protein binding profiles to bulk chromatin and to valuate how the binding is altered when the protein, or its environment, is manipulated. This method measures the relative affinity of epigenetic regulators to chromatin, and can be used to evaluate how those interactions change upon genetic, chemical, and environmental manipulation. The main advantage of this technique is that it is a quick and inexpensive way to ...