Name: probing the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes using atomic force microscopy imaging
Uploaded: 2019-01-31T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging at JoVE.com

Author contributions: YLL and MSD designed the project; MSD assembled nucleosomes. MSD and ZS performed AFM experiments and data analyses. All authors wrote and edited the manuscript.

1. Continuous Dilution Assembly of Mono-nucleosomes
<ol>
	<li>Generate and purify an approximately 400 bp DNA substrate that contains an off-centered Widom 601 nucleosome positioning sequence.55 
	NOTE: To limit the unwanted formation of di-nucleosomes, each &#8216;arm&#8217; flanking the positioning sequence should not exceed ~150 bp.
	<ol>
		<li>Use plasmid pGEM3Z-601 along with the designed primers and amplify the substrate DNA using PCR. For the 423 bp substrate with 122 and 154 bp arm ...

The protocol described above is rather straightforward and provide highly reproducible results, although a few important issues can be emphasized. Functionalized APS-mica is a key substrate for getting reliable and reproducible results. A high stability of APS-mica is one of the important features of this substrate that allows one to prepare the imaging substrate in advance for use that can be used at least two weeks after being prepared.59,61 However, the surfac...

In eukaryotic cells, DNA is highly condensed and organized into chromosomes.1 The first level of DNA organization within a chromosome is the assembly of nucleosomes in which 147 bp of DNA is tightly wrapped around a histone octamer core.2,3 Nucleosome particles assemble on a long DNA molecule forming a chromatin array which is then organized until a highly compact chromosome unit is formed.4 The disassembly of chromatin provides the access to free DNA required by critical cellular processes such as gene transcription and genome replication, suggesting that chromatin is a highly dynamic system.5,6,7 Understanding the dynamic properties of DNA at various chromatin levels is critically important for elucidating genetic processes at the molecular level where mistakes can lead to cell death or the development of diseases such as cancer.8 A chromatin property of great importance is the dynamics of nucleosomes.9,10,11,12 The high stability of these particles has allowed for the structural characterization by crystallographic techniques.2 What these studies lack are the dynamic details of nucleosomes such as the mechanism of DNA unwrapping from the histone core; the dynamic pathway of which is required for transcription and replication processes.7,9,13,14,15,16 Furthermore, special proteins termed remodeling factors have been shown to facilitate the disassembly of nucleosomal particles17; however, the intrinsic dynamics of nucleosomes is the critical factor in this process that contributes to the entire disassembly process.14,16,18,19
Single-molecule techniques such as single-molecule fluorescence19,20,21, optical trapping (tweezers)13,18,22,23 and AFM10,14,15,16,24,25,26 have been instrumental in understanding the dynamics of nucleosomes. Among these methods, AFM benefits from several unique and attractive features. AFM allows one to visualize and characterize individual nucleosomes as well as the longer arrays27. From AFM images, important characteristics of nucleosome structure such as the length of DNA wrapped around the histone core can be measured 10,14,26,28; a parameter that is central to the characterization of nucleosome unwrapping dynamics. Past AFM studies have revealed nucleosomes to be highly dynamic systems and that DNA can spontaneously unwrap from the histone core14. The spontaneous unwrapping of DNA from nucleosomes was directly visualized by AFM operating in the time-lapse mode when the imaging is done in aqueous solutions 14,26,29.
The advent of the high-speed time-lapse AFM (HS-AFM) instrumentation made it possible to visualize the nucleosome unwrapping process at the millisecond time-scale 14,15,24. Recent HS-AFM 16,30 studies of centromere specific nucleosomes revealed several novel features of the nucleosomes compared with the canonical type. Centromere nucleosomes constitute of a centromere, a small part of the chromosome critically important for chromosome segregation31. Unlike canonical nucleosomes in bulk chromatin, the histone core of centromere nucleosomes contains CENP-A histone instead of histone H332,33. As a result of this histone substitution, DNA wrapping in centromere nucleosomes is ~120 bp instead of the ~147 bp for canonical nucleosomes; a difference that can lead to distinct morphologies of the centromere and canonical nucleosomes arrays34, suggesting that centromere chromatin undergoes higher dynamics compared with the bulk one. The novel dynamics displayed by centromere nucleosomes in HS-AFM16,30 studies exemplify the unique opportunity provided by this single-molecule technique to directly visualize the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. Examples of these features will be briefly discussed and illustrated at the end of the paper. This progress was made due to the development of novel protocols for AFM imaging of nucleosomes as well as the modifications of existing methods. The goal of the protocol described here is to make these exciting advances in single-molecule AFM nucleosome studies accessible to anyone who would like to utilize these techniques in their chromatin investigations. Many of the techniques described are applicable to problems beyond the study of nucleosomes and can be used for investigations of other protein and DNA systems of interest. A few examples of such applications can be found in publications35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49 and prospects of AFM studies of various biomolecular systems are given in reviews29,50,51,53,54.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Plasmid pGEM3Z-601</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Addgene, Cambridge, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">26656</td>
			<td style="width:449px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">PCR Primers</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">IDT, Coralville, IA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Custom Order</td>
			<td>(FP) 5&#39;- CAGTGAATTGTAATACGACTC-3&#39; (RP) 5&#39;-ACAGCTATGACCATGATTAC-3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">DreamTaq polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EP0701</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 200 units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">PCR purification kit</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Qiagen, Hilden, Germany&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">28104</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Tris base</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10708976001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 250 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:335px;">EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>15576028</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">(CENP-A/H4)2, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">16-0010</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">H2A/H2B, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15-0311</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">H3 Octamer, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">16-0001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Slide-A-Lyzer MINI Dialysis Device Kit, 10K MWCO, 0.1 mL</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">69574</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9888-500G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Amicon Ultra-0.5&#160;mL Centrifugal Filters&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Millipore-sigma, Burlington, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UFC501008</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 8 devices</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">HCl</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>258148-25ML</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Tricine</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>T0377-25G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">SDS</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11667289001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 1 kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Ammonium Persulfate (AmmPS)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610700</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">30% Acrylamide/Bis Solution, 37.5:1</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610158</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">TEMED</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610800</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">4x Laemmli protein sample buffer for SDS-PAGE</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610747</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">2-ME</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M6250-10ML</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">ageRuler Prestained Protein Ladder&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">26616</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 uL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Bio-Safe&#8482; Coomassie Stain</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610786</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Nonwoven cleanroom wipes: TX604 TechniCloth&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">TexWipe, Kernersvile, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TX604</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Muscovite Block Mica</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">AshevilleMica, Newport News, VA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Grade-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Aminopropyl silatrane (APS)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Synthesized as described in 22</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">HEPES</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H4034-25G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Scotch Tape</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Scotch-3M, St. Paul, MN</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">TESPA-V2 afm probe (for static imaging)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker AFM Probes, Camarillo, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">MSNL-10 afm probe (for standard time-lapse imaing)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker AFM Probes, Camarillo, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Aron Alpha Industrial Krazy Glue</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Toagosei America, West Jefferson, OH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AA480</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 2 g tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M8266-100G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Millex-GP Filter, 0.22&#160;&#181;m</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SLGP05010</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">BL-AC10DS-A2 afm probe (for HS-AFM)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Olympus, Japan</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Compound FG-3020C-20&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">FluoroTechnology Co., Ltd., Kagiya, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Compound FS-1010S135-0.5&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">FluoroTechnology Co., Ltd., Kagiya, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">MultiMode Atomic Force Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker-Nano/Veeco, Santa Barbara, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:335px;">High-Speed Time-Lapse Atomic Force Microsocopy</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Toshio Ando, Nano-Life Science Institute, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, Japan</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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probing the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes using atomic force microscopy imaging

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription to take place in eukaryotic cells. The dynamics of nucleosomes provides access to the DNA by replication and transcription machineries, and critically contributes to the molecular mechanisms underlying chromatin functions. Single-molecule studies such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the role of nucleosome structure and dynamics. The current protocol describes the steps enabling high-resolution AFM imaging techniques to study the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. The protocol is illustrated by AFM data obtained for the centromere nucleosomes in which H3 histone is replaced with its counterpart centromere protein A (CENP-A). The protocol starts with the assembly of mono-nucleosomes using a continuous dilution method. The preparation of the mica substrate functionalized with aminopropyl silatrane (APS-mica) that is used for the nucleosome imaging is critical for the AFM visualization of nucleosomes described and the procedure to prepare the substrate is provided. Nucleosomes deposited on the APS-mica surface are first imaged using static AFM, which captures a snapshot of the nucleosome population. From analyses of these images, such parameters as the size of DNA wrapped around the nucleosomes can be measured and this process is also detailed. The time-lapse AFM imaging procedure in the liquid is described for the high-speed time-lapse AFM that can capture several frames of nucleosome dynamics per second. Finally, the analysis of nucleosome dynamics enabling the quantitative characterization of the dynamic processes is described and illustrated.

Mono-nucleosomes were first prepared for AFM imaging experiments using a continuous dilution assembly method (Figure 1). The prepared nucleosomes were then checked using discontinuous SDS-PAGE (Figure 2). A mica surface was next functionalized using APS, which captures nucleosomes at the surface while maintaining a smooth background for high-resolution imaging (Figure 3). Nucleosomes were deposited on APS-mica and were subsequently ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging at JoVE.com

Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription ...

This protocol utilizes all major features of AFM, non-amenable to other single molecule techniques. As a result, we are able to resolve structure of nucleosome at nano scale. Importantly, direct visualization of nucleosomes was done at physiological conditions.Using our AFM technique, we have recently revealed unique properties of the centromere nucleosome that can play a role on the function of the entire centromere. The method to be shown is currently applied in our lab to investigate self-assembly of proteins associated with formation of amyloid aggregates. These protein aggregates trigger the development of devastating diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's to name a few.The simple preparation methods are also applicable to other protein-DNA complexes, including large systems such as DNA replication machinery. Although some modifications are needed. In order to characterize nucleosome particles at the single molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy, begin by purifying, assembling, and validating the nucleosomes as described in the accompanying text protocol.Next, prepare the mica surface for static AFM imaging. To do this, first prepare a fifty millimolar APS stock solution in deionized water. Store one milliliter aliquots of this solution at four degrees Celsius, until it is needed.From the stock solution, prepare a working APS solution for mica modification by dissolving 50 microliters of the 50 micromolar APS stock in 15 milliliters of distilled deionized water. Mix the solution and then fill a cuvette with the solution. Next, cut one by three centimeter strips of mica from high quality mica sheets.Check that the piece fits when placed diagonally in a cuvette. Then, cleave layers of the mica until both sides are freshly cleaved, and the piece is as thin as 0.1 millimeter. Immediately place the mica piece into the APS filled cuvette and incubate the mica for 30 minutes.Transfer the mica piece to a cuvette filled with distilled deionized water and soak it for 30 seconds. Then, use argon to completely dry both sides of the APS mica strip. Apply double faced adhesive tape to several magnetic pucks and place them to the side.Then, cut the APS mica substrate to one centimeter by one centimeter squares, and cover them in a clean Petri dish. Next, prepare three dilutions of the assembled nucleosomes using a 0.22 micron filtered buffer containing 10 millimolar hepes and four millimolar magnesium chloride at a PH of 7.5. To limit the loss of nucleosomes, at the low final concentration, the dilution should be done one at a time, immediately prior to deposition on the APS mica.Deposit five to 10 microliters of each nucleosome sample at the center of an APS mica piece and let them incubate for two minutes. Then, gently rinse the sample with two to three milliliters of distilled deionized water to remove the buffer components. And dry the deposited sample under a light flow of argon.To begin, mount a tip on the tip holder of the AFM setup. Then, mount the first sample on the AFM stage, being careful not to contact the sample surface. Position the laser over the cantilever until its sum is at the maximum and adjust the vertical and lateral deflection values to near zero.Then, tune the AFM probe to find its resonant frequency, adjust the drive amplitude, and set the image size to 100 by 100 nanometers. Once set up, click the engage button to begin the approach. When the approach is complete, gradually optimize the amplitude set point until the surface of the sample is clearly seen.Then, increase the scan size to one micron by one micron and the resolution to 512 by 512 pixels. Finally, click the capture button to begin image acquisition. Use glass rod scanner glue to attach a glass rod to the AFM scanner stage.Allow this to dry for a minimum of 10 minutes. In the meantime, make 0.1 millimeter thick circular pieces of mica with a 1.5 millimeter diameter by punching them from a larger mica sheet. Use the high speed AFM mica glass rod glue to attach this mica piece to the glass rod on the high speed AFM, and allow it to remain untouched for a minimum of 10 minutes while it dries.Then, cleave layers from the mica using a pressure sensitive tape until a well cleaved layer is seen on the tape. Next, dilute one microliter of 50 millimolar APS stock in 99 microliters of distilled deionized water to make a 500 micromolar APS solution. Deposit 2.5 microliters of the solution on the freshly cleaved mica surface and let the surface functionalize for 30 minutes.Following the incubation, rinse the mica several times with distilled deionized water by applying three microliters rinses. Remove the water completely following each rinse by placing a non-woven wipe at the edge of the mica. After the final rinse, place three microliters of distilled deionized water on the surface, and let it sit for a minimum of five minutes to remove any non-specifically bound APS.Next, place the probe in the high speed AFM holder, and position the holder on the AFM stage with the tip facing up. Rinse the holder using 100 microliters of distilled deionized water, followed by two 100 microliter rinses of 0.22 micron filtered nucleosome imaging buffer. With the rinses done, fill the chamber with 100 microliters of nucleosome imaging buffer, submerging the tip.Adjust the cantilever position until it is hit with the laser. Then, rinse the APS mica five times with filtered nucleosome imaging buffer, using four microliters per rinse. Dilute one microliter of the nucleosome assembly stock into 250 microliters of filtered nucleosome imaging buffer for a final nucleosome concentration of one nanomolar.Deposit 2.5 microliters of this dilution on the surface and let it sit for two minutes. Rinse the surface twice with four microliters of nucleosome imaging buffer to avoid over crowding. After the final rinse, leave the surface covered in imaging buffer.Set the scanner and sample on top of the tip holder so that the sample is face down. To begin the approach, use the auto approach function with the set point amplitude close to the free oscillation amplitude. Adjust the set point until the surface is being well tracked.Then, set the image area around 150 by 150 nanometers to 200 by 200 nanometers with the data acquisition rate of around 300 milliseconds per imaging frame. As a control for the assembly and deposition, H3 mononucleosomes were prepared and imaged using static AFM. This image provides a snapshot of the nucleosome population as it existed moments before deposition confirming that nucelosomes were successfully assembled.With the H3 control assembly a success, the presented methods were next applied to the study of CENP-A nucleosomes. Static AFM imaging of this sample revealed its assembly was a success. From the static AFM images, the height and turn number of mononucleosomes could be characterized.Both the angle between the free DNA arms and the length of the free DNA arms are used to determine the number of DNA turns in the individual nucleosome. In contrast, time lapse AFM imaging of the nucleosomes can be used to visualize the overall spontaneous unwrapping behavior of the nucleosomes. As the turn number of the nucleosome decreases, a corresponding decrease in the nucleosome core volume is also observed.In addition to regular time lapse imaging, high speed time lapse AFM can be used to probe the more intricate nucleosome dynamics that is missed using standard time lapse imaging. The ability of this technique to capture the dynamics over a long period of time was essential to the visualization of a long distance translocation of a CENP-A nucleosome core, which was captured over the course of 1200 frames. This technique was also critical in capturing the rare transfer of a CENP-A nucleosome core from one DNA substrate to another.The fast image capture rate made visualization of this dynamic event possible as it only took several frames to complete. In the broad chromatin field there are a set of important questions relating to the roles of liger histones and histone magnification of the chromatin dynamics. All these questions can be answered using our technique.

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Characterizing Individual Protein Aggregates by Infrared Nanospectroscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy

The phenomenon of protein misfolding and aggregation results in the formation of highly heterogeneous protein aggregates, which are associated with ...

Production of Dynein and Kinesin Motor Ensembles on DNA Origami Nanostructures for Single Molecule Observation

Cytoskeletal motors are responsible for a wide variety of functions in eukaryotic cells, including mitosis, cargo transport, cellular motility, and ...

Visualizing Diffusional Dynamics of Gold Nanorods on Cell Membrane using Single Nanoparticle Darkfield Microscopy

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and ...