<ol>
<li>First we need to prepare the 2ml screw-cap vials for extraction: Add 400ul extraction buffer (1-propanol:H2O:concentrated HCl 2:1:0.002 vol/vol/vol) and 10 &mu;l of the respective internal standard (10ng/&mu;l) to a vial. Freeze in liquid nitrogen and then add the ceramic beads.</li>
<li>Add the plant material (between 50 and 200mg) while the vials are still positioned in the liquid nitrogen. Note that the weight of the added plant material has to be estimated before further processing to allow later for exact quantification, which is based on the fresh weight. </li>
<li>Make sure that all liquid nitrogen is evaporated before tightly closing the vial with a cap. Note that the cap needs to have a rubber seal to prevent spills of solvents and thus, extracted compounds during the homogenization. </li>
<li>Homogenize the tissue in a FastPrep or Precellys bead grinder homogenizer at a speed of 6000 (for Precellys) for 30 sec. </li>
<li>Remove vials from homogenizer individually, carefully open the cap and add 1ml of dichloromethane to each sample. Close vials again tightly and homogenize again for 10-15sec at 6000 (Precellys).</li>
<li>Transfer vials to a tabletop centrifuge and separate the organic phase from the aqueous phase at 10.000xg for 60sec.</li>
<li>After phase separation transfer the lower green layer (organic phase, contains the hormones and the internal standards) from individual vials to a clean 4ml glass vial. Avoid the transfer of water (upper phase). Alternatively, ethyl acetate can be used instead of dichloromethane. In that case the ethyacetate phase will be the upper layer (green) and is now easier to remove and transferred to a fresh 4ml glass vial. As before, avoid the transfer of water.</li>
<li>Blow off the solvent with air through a manifold for about 10-25 min (depends on sample); check with a single airflow tip if samples are dry (carefully). Do not overdry samples, for this might cause losses of compounds.</li>
<li>Once the samples are dried we can start the methylation of the carboxylic acid-containing compounds in our samples. First, 100 &mu;l of a diethyether/methanol mixture (9:1 vol/vol) are added to each vial followed by 4&mu;l of a 2M trimethylsilyldiazomethane solution (in hexane, Sigma Aldrich). Vials are immediately closed with an open-top screw cap fitted with a Teflon-lined silicone septum. Shake gently and incubate at RT for 25 to 30min. </li>
<li>After finishing step 9, turn on a heating block and set at the desired collection temperature. The volatility of the methylated compounds depends on their size, but also on other, more polar groups like =O, -OH, and -NH. For jasmonic acid and salicylic acid methyl esters a collection temperatures of around 80&deg;C are sufficient, whereas for example other compounds like C18 fatty acids, jasmonic acid-amino acid conjugates, coronatine, and 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid methyl ester require temperature between 180-200&deg;C to effectively volatilize. </li>
<li>After a 30min incubation the methylation reaction needs to be stopped to avoid unwanted secondary reaction. This is done by adding 4 &mu;l of a 2M acetic acid-solution (in hexane) to each vial. After closing the vials with caps and a short vortexing, the samples are allowed to incubate for another 30min.</li>
<li>The filters used for this vapor phase extraction are handmade and in the presented form not commercially available. They consist of an outer Teflon tube (about 7-8cm long), into which from one side a well-fitting glass tube of about 4cm length is inserted. On the other side of the Teflon tube a stainless steel mesh disc is pushed inside the tube until it reaches the inner glass tube and onto that about 20-30mg of adsorbent (either SuperQ 80/100 (discontinued) or HayeSep&reg; Q80/100) are added. Another stainless steel mesh disc is inserted and finally a glass tip is pushes into the Teflon tube, thereby carefully pressing the stainless steel mesh disc on the absorbent. A detailed picture a filter is shown in figure 1. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/1127/1127fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1.</li>
<li>During the incubation time of step 11, the filters for the collection of the methylated and thus, volatile plant hormones, have to be washed using first 200ul of methanol, and then 2 washes with 200ul dichloromethane each. Solvent remaining in the filters is then blown off by air. The filters can now be used for the trapping of volatile hormones through vapor phase extraction. </li>
<li>After 30min of incubation the rubber septa of the 4ml vial caps are cut with a scalpel. To collect the plant hormones by vapor phase extraction the cleaned filters are connected to individual vacuum lines at a flow rate of about 800ml/min. The filters are then inserted into the vial through the cut septa. A small pipet tip is also inserted to act as an air inlet. During this initial part of the procedure the vials with the inserted filters have to be held in an upright position to avoid any of the liquid inside the vial to get in contact with the filter tip, which would contaminate the filter and subsequently also the GC/MS. The vials are then held by hand until all the liquid is evaporated through the filter. Then the vials with the attached filters are placed on the heating block and heat-evaporated compounds collected for 3min. The principle components of the system as well as the setup are depicted in figure 1. After this final vapor phase extraction step the vials with the filters still attached are placed on a rack and allowed to cool down.</li>
<li>When the filters have reached room temperature again they are eluted with 150ml of dichloromethane into a 1.5 ml GC-vial fitted with an insert. Alter blowing out the remaining solvent from the filter the vials are capped and analyzed by GC/MS. </li>
</ol>
A gas chromatograph equipped with a split/splitless injector (splitless mode 250&deg;C, injection volume 1&mu;) interfaced to a mass spectrometer operated in chemical ionization mode (CI) should be used for the analysis). Compounds are separated on HP-1MS column (30m x 0.25mm x 025&mu;m) held at 40&deg;C for 1min after injection, and then temperature programmed at 15&deg;C/min to 250&deg;C (for 10min), with helium as the carrier gas (constant flow 0.7ml/min). For the MS-based analysis both, a quadropole (e.g. Agilent HP5973) and an ion trap-based (e.g. Varian Saturn 2200) mass spectrometer can be used. As a CI gas either isobutane (comes in gas tanks) or methanol (vapors from a liquid reservoir are used) can be use, however, in each case the fragments of the ionization reaction should be checked before the selected ion count (SIC) programs are created. We have used the following program for a Varian GC 3900/Saturn MS 2200 system and methanol as the CI reagent: 5.00-11.30min ions (M+1)+ 153-158 (methyl salicylate 153, methyl 2H5-salicylate); 11.30-13.30min ions (M+1)+ 207-228 (methyl jasmonate 207 and 225, methyl dihydrojasmonate 209 and 227); 13.30-16.30min ions (M+1)+ 237-300 (methyl abscisic acid 261, methyl 2H6-abscisic acid 267 (abscisic acid produces predominantly [M-H2O+1]+ ions). All compounds should be identified by comparison with authentic commercially available standards. Quantification of JA, SA, and ABA is done by correlating the peak area (extracted ions) with the peak area (extracted ions) of the respective internal standard and is also based on the fresh weight of the plant material used.

<ol>
	<li>Schmelz, E. A., Engelberth, J., Tumlinson, J. H., Alborn, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+vapor+phase+extraction+in+metabolic+profiling+of+phytohormones+and+other+metabolites.">The use of vapor phase extraction in metabolic profiling of phytohormones and other metabolites.</a> Plant Journal. 39, 790-808 (2004).</li><li>Engelberth, J., Alborn, H. T., Schmelz, E. A., Tumlinson, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Airborne+signals+prime+plants+against+insect+herbivore+attack.">Airborne signals prime plants against insect herbivore attack.</a> PNAS. 101, 1781-1785 (2004).</li><li>Schmelz, E. A., Engelberth, J., Alborn, H. T., O&amp;acute, D. o. n. n. e. l., Sammons, P., Toshima, M., H, J. H. T. u. m. l. i. n. s. o. n. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+analysis+of+phytohormones,+phytotoxins,+and+volatile+organic+compounds+in+plants.">Simultaneous analysis of phytohormones, phytotoxins, and volatile organic compounds in plants.</a> PNAS. 100, 10552-10557 (2003).</li><li>Engelberth, J., Schmelz, E. A., Alborn, H., Cardoza, Y. J., Huang, J., Tumlinson, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+Quantification+of+Jasmonic+acid+and+Salicylic+acid+by+Vapor+Phase+Extraction+and+Gas+Chromatography+-+Chemical+Ionization-Mass+Spectrometry.">Simultaneous Quantification of Jasmonic acid and Salicylic acid by Vapor Phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography - Chemical Ionization-Mass Spectrometry.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 312, 242-250 (2003).</li></ol>

The method presented here has been proven to work reliably for a wide array of plant signaling compounds provided that the size and the chemical nature of the compound does not prevent it from being extracted, methylated, and vaporized. Also, the methylation procedure as it is described herein is not the only way of derivatization. Silyllation and acetylation are alternative methods and protocols can be easily found online.
If the mass spectrometer is not capable of single ion monitoring the m...

monitoring plant hormones during stress responses

Plant hormones and related signaling compounds play an important role in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. Among the most severe stresses are insect herbivory, pathogen infection, and drought stress. For each of these stresses a specific set of hormones and/or combinations thereof are known to fine-tune the responses, thereby ensuring the plant's survival. The major hormones involved in the regulation of these responses are jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), and abscisic acid (ABA). To better understand the role of individual hormones as well as their potential interaction during these responses it is necessary to monitor changes in their abundance in a temporal as well as in a spatial fashion. For the easy, sensitive, and reproducible quantification of these and other signaling compounds we developed a method based on vapor phase extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis (1, 2, 3, 4). After extracting these compounds from the plant tissue by acidic aqueous 1-propanol mixed with dichloromethane the carboxylic acid-containing compounds are methylated, volatilized under heat, and collected on a polymeric absorbent. After elution into a sample vial the analytes are separated by gas chromatography and detected by chemical ionization mass spectrometry. The use of appropriate internal standards then allows for the simple quantification by relating the peak areas of analyte and internal standard.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Plant Hormones During Stress Responses at JoVE.com

Monitoring Plant Hormones During Stress Responses

A simple method is provided that allows for the rapid extraction and analysis of multiple plant hormones from small tissue samples. The procedure uses vapor phase extraction as the solemn purification step. Samples are analyzed by GC/MS with chemical ionization that produces mainly (M+1)+ ions.

Plant hormones and related signaling compounds play an important role in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. ...

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16.5K Views.  University of Texas. A simple method is provided that allows for the rapid extraction and analysis of multiple plant hormones from small tissue samples. The procedure uses vapor phase extraction as the solemn purification step. Samples are analyzed by GC/MS with chemical ionization that produces mainly (M+1)+ ions.

Video: Monitoring Plant Hormones During Stress Responses

Investigating Tissue- and Organ-specific Phytochrome Responses using FACS-assisted Cell-type Specific Expression Profiling in Arabidopsis thaliana

Light mediates an array of developmental and adaptive processes throughout the life cycle of a plant. Plants utilize light-absorbing molecules called photoreceptors to sense and adapt to light. The red/far-red light-absorbing phytochrome photoreceptors have been studied extensively. Phytochromes exist as a family of proteins with distinct and overlapping functions in all higher plant systems in which they have been studied1. Phytochrome-mediated light responses, which range from seed germination through flowering and senescence, are often localized to specific plant tissues or organs2. Despite the discovery and elucidation of individual and redundant phytochrome functions through mutational analyses, conclusive reports on distinct sites of photoperception and the molecular mechanisms of localized pools of phytochromes that mediate spatial-specific phytochrome responses are limited. We designed experiments based on the hypotheses that specific sites of phytochrome photoperception regulate tissue- and organ-specific aspects of photomorphogenesis, and that localized phytochrome pools engage distinct subsets of downstream target genes in cell-to-cell signaling. We developed a biochemical approach to selectively reduce functional phytochromes in an organ- or tissue-specific manner within transgenic plants. Our studies are based on a bipartite enhancer-trap approach that results in transactivation of the expression of a gene under control of the Upstream Activation Sequence (UAS) element by the transcriptional activator GAL43. The biliverdin reductase (BVR) gene under the control of the UAS is silently maintained in the absence of GAL4 transactivation in the UAS-BVR parent4. Genetic crosses between a UAS-BVR transgenic line and a GAL4-GFP enhancer trap line result in specific expression of the BVR gene in cells marked by GFP expression4. BVR accumulation in Arabidopsis plants results in phytochrome chromophore deficiency in planta5-7. Thus, transgenic plants that we have produced exhibit GAL4-dependent activation of the BVR gene, resulting in the biochemical inactivation of phytochrome, as well as GAL4-dependent GFP expression. Photobiological and molecular genetic analyses of BVR transgenic lines are yielding insight into tissue- and organ-specific phytochrome-mediated responses that have been associated with corresponding sites of photoperception4, 7, 8. Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) of GFP-positive, enhancer-trap-induced BVR-expressing plant protoplasts coupled with cell-type-specific gene expression profiling through microarray analysis is being used to identify putative downstream target genes involved in mediating spatial-specific phytochrome responses. This research is expanding our understanding of sites of light perception, the mechanisms through which various tissues or organs cooperate in light-regulated plant growth and development, and advancing the molecular dissection of complex phytochrome-mediated cell-to-cell signaling cascades.

Investigating Tissue- and Organ-specific Phytochrome Responses using FACS-assisted Cell-type Specific Expression Profiling in Arabidopsis thaliana

The molecular basis of spatial-specific phytochrome responses is being investigated using transgenic plants that exhibit tissue- and organ-specific phytochrome deficiencies. The isolation of specific cells exhibiting induced phytochrome chromophore depletion by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting followed by microarray analyses is being utilized to identify genes involved in spatial-specific phytochrome responses.

Light mediates an array of developmental and adaptive processes throughout the life cycle of a plant. Plants utilize light-absorbing molecules called ...

Bioassays for Monitoring Insecticide Resistance

Pest resistance to pesticides is an increasing problem because pesticides are an integral part of high-yielding production agriculture. When few products are labeled for an individual pest within a particular crop system, chemical control options are limited. Therefore, the same product(s) are used repeatedly and continual selection pressure is placed on the target pest. There are both financial and environmental costs associated with the development of resistant populations. The cost of pesticide resistance has been estimated at approximately $ 1.5 billion annually in the United States. This paper will describe protocols, currently used to monitor arthropod (specifically insects) populations for the development of resistance. The adult vial test is used to measure the toxicity to contact insecticides and a modification of this test is used for plant-systemic insecticides. In these bioassays, insects are exposed to technical grade insecticide and responses (mortality) recorded at a specific post-exposure interval. The mortality data are subjected to Log Dose probit analysis to generate estimates of a lethal concentration that provides mortality to 50% (LC50) of the target populations and a series of confidence limits (CL's) as estimates of data variability. When these data are collected for a range of insecticide-susceptible populations, the LC50 can be used as baseline data for future monitoring purposes. After populations have been exposed to products, the results can be compared to a previously determined LC50 using the same methodology.

This manuscript demonstrates and discusses techniques used to survey pesticide susceptibility and detect resistance to contact and systemic pesticides in arthropod pests.

Pest resistance to pesticides is an increasing problem because pesticides are an integral part of high-yielding production agriculture. When few products ...

Linking Predation Risk, Herbivore Physiological Stress and Microbial Decomposition of Plant Litter

The quantity and quality of detritus entering the soil determines the rate of decomposition by microbial communities as well as recycle rates of nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) sequestration1,2. Plant litter comprises the majority of detritus3, and so it is assumed that decomposition is only marginally influenced by biomass inputs from animals such as herbivores and carnivores4,5. However, carnivores may influence microbial decomposition of plant litter via a chain of interactions in which predation risk alters the physiology of their herbivore prey that in turn alters soil microbial functioning when the herbivore carcasses are decomposed6. A physiological stress response by herbivores to the risk of predation can change the C:N elemental composition of herbivore biomass7,8,9 because stress from predation risk increases herbivore basal energy demands that in nutrient-limited systems forces herbivores to shift their consumption from N-rich resources to support growth and reproduction to C-rich carbohydrate resources to support heightened metabolism6. Herbivores have limited ability to store excess nutrients, so stressed herbivores excrete N as they increase carbohydrate-C consumption7. Ultimately, prey stressed by predation risk increase their body C:N ratio7,10, making them poorer quality resources for the soil microbial pool likely due to lower availability of labile N for microbial enzyme production6. Thus, decomposition of carcasses of stressed herbivores has a priming effect on the functioning of microbial communities that decreases subsequent ability to of microbes to decompose plant litter6,10,11.
We present the methodology to evaluate linkages between predation risk and litter decomposition by soil microbes. We describe how to: induce stress in herbivores from predation risk; measure those stress responses, and measure the consequences on microbial decomposition. We use insights from a model grassland ecosystem comprising the hunting spider predator (Pisuarina mira), a dominant grasshopper herbivore (Melanoplus femurrubrum),and a variety of grass and forb plants9.

We present methods to evaluate how predation risk can alter the chemical quality of herbivore prey by inducing dietary changes to meet demands of heightened stress, and how the decomposition of carcasses from these stressed herbivores slows subsequent plant litter decomposition by soil microbes.

The quantity and quality of detritus entering the soil  determines the rate of decomposition by microbial communities as well as  recycle rates of ...

Analysis of Translation Initiation During Stress Conditions by Polysome Profiling

Precise control of mRNA translation is fundamental for eukaryotic cell homeostasis, particularly in response to physiological and pathological stress. Alterations of this program can lead to the growth of damaged cells, a hallmark of cancer development, or to premature cell death such as seen in neurodegenerative diseases. Much of what is known concerning the molecular basis for translational control has been obtained from polysome analysis using a density gradient fractionation system. This technique relies on ultracentrifugation of cytoplasmic extracts on a linear sucrose gradient. Once the spin is completed, the system allows fractionation and quantification of centrifuged zones corresponding to different translating ribosomes populations, thus resulting in a polysome profile. Changes in the polysome profile are indicative of changes or defects in translation initiation that occur in response to various types of stress. This technique also allows to assess the role of specific proteins on translation initiation, and to measure translational activity of specific mRNAs. Here we describe our protocol to perform polysome profiles in order to assess translation initiation of eukaryotic cells and tissues under either normal or stress growth conditions.

Here, we describe a method to analyze changes in the initiation of mRNA translation of eukaryotic cells in response to stress conditions. This method is based on the velocity separation on sucrose gradients of translating ribosomes from non-translating ribosomes.

Precise control of mRNA translation is fundamental for eukaryotic cell homeostasis, particularly in response to physiological and pathological stress. ...

Hydroponics: A Versatile System to Study Nutrient Allocation and Plant Responses to Nutrient Availability and Exposure to Toxic Elements

Hydroponic systems have been utilized as one of the standard methods for plant biology research and are also used in commercial production for several crops, including lettuce and tomato. Within the plant research community, numerous hydroponic systems have been designed to study plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here we present a hydroponic protocol that can be easily implemented in laboratories interested in pursuing studies on plant mineral nutrition.
This protocol describes the hydroponic system set up in detail and the preparation of plant material for successful experiments. Most of the materials described in this protocol can be found outside scientific supply companies, making the set up for hydroponic experiments less expensive and convenient.
The use of a hydroponic growth system is most advantageous in situations where the nutrient media need to be well controlled and when intact roots need to be harvested for downstream applications. We also demonstrate how nutrient concentrations can be modified to induce plant responses to both essential nutrients and toxic non-essential elements.

Here, we present an easy-to-follow protocol to establish a successful hydroponic system for plant nutrition studies. This protocol has been extensively tested in Arabidopsis and can easily be adapted to other plant species to study specific nutritional requirements or the effect of non-essential elements on plant growth and development.

Hydroponic systems have been utilized as one of the standard methods for plant biology research and are also used in commercial production for several ...

Split Green Fluorescent Protein System to Visualize Effectors Delivered from Bacteria During Infection

Bacteria, one of the most important causative agents of various plant diseases, secrete a set of effector proteins into the host plant cell to subvert the plant immune system. During infection cytoplasmic effectors are delivered to the host cytosol via a type III secretion system (T3SS). After delivery into the plant cell, the effector(s) targets the specific compartment(s) to modulate host cell processes for survival and replication of the pathogen. Although there has been some research on the subcellular localization of effector proteins in the host cells to understand their function in pathogenicity by using fluorescent proteins, investigation of the dynamics of effectors directly injected from bacteria has been challenging due to the incompatibility between the T3SS and fluorescent proteins.
Here, we describe our recent method of an optimized split superfolder green fluorescent protein system (sfGFPOPT) to visualize the localization of effectors delivered via the bacterial T3SS in the host cell. The sfGFP11 (11th &#946;-strand of sfGFP)-tagged effector secreted through the T3SS can be assembled with a specific organelle targeted sfGFP1-10OPT (1-10th &#946;-strand of sfGFP) leading to fluorescence emission at the site. This protocol provides a procedure to visualize the reconstituted sfGFP fluorescence signal with an effector protein from Pseudomonas syringae in a particular organelle in the Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana plants.

Fluorescent protein-based approaches to monitor effectors secreted by bacteria into host cells are challenging. This is due to the incompatibility between fluorescent proteins and the type-III secretion system. Here, an optimized split superfolder GFP system is used for visualization of effectors secreted by bacteria into the host plant cell.

Bacteria, one of the most important causative agents of various plant diseases, secrete a set of effector proteins into the host plant cell to subvert the ...

Measurements of Physiological Stress Responses in C. Elegans

Organisms are often exposed to fluctuating environments and changes in intracellular homeostasis, which can have detrimental effects on their proteome and physiology. Thus, organisms have evolved targeted and specific stress responses dedicated to repair damage and maintain homeostasis. These mechanisms include the unfolded protein response of the endoplasmic reticulum (UPRER), the unfolded protein response of the mitochondria (UPRMT), the heat shock response (HSR), and the oxidative stress response (OxSR). The protocols presented here describe methods to detect and characterize the activation of these pathways and their physiological consequences in the nematode, C. elegans. First, the use of pathway-specific fluorescent transcriptional reporters is described for rapid cellular characterization, drug screening, or large-scale genetic screening (e.g., RNAi or mutant libraries). In addition, complementary, robust physiological assays are described, which can be used to directly assess sensitivity of animals to specific stressors, serving as functional validation of the transcriptional reporters. Together, these methods allow for rapid characterization of the cellular and physiological effects of internal and external proteotoxic perturbations.

Measurements of Physiological Stress Responses in C. Elegans

Here, we characterize cellular proteotoxic stress responses in the nematode C. elegans by measuring the activation of fluorescent transcriptional reporters and assaying sensitivity to physiological stress.

Organisms are often exposed to fluctuating environments and changes in intracellular homeostasis, which can have detrimental effects on their proteome and ...

In Vitro Analysis of E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Function

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to internal lysine residue(s) of a substrate protein, a process termed ubiquitylation, represents one of the most important post-translational modifications in eukaryotic organisms. Ubiquitylation is mediated by a sequential cascade of three enzyme classes including ubiquitin-activating enzymes (E1 enzymes), ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2 enzymes), and ubiquitin ligases (E3 enzymes), and sometimes, ubiquitin-chain elongation factors (E4 enzymes). Here, in vitro protocols for ubiquitylation assays are provided, which allow the assessment of E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, the cooperation between E2-E3 pairs, and substrate selection. Cooperating E2-E3 pairs can be screened by monitoring the generation of free poly-ubiquitin chains and/or auto-ubiquitylation of the E3 ligase. Substrate ubiquitylation is defined by selective binding of the E3 ligase and can be detected by western blotting of the in vitro reaction. Furthermore, an E2~Ub discharge assay is described, which is a useful tool for the direct assessment of functional E2-E3 cooperation. Here, the E3-dependent transfer of ubiquitin is followed from the corresponding E2 enzyme onto free lysine amino acids (mimicking substrate ubiquitylation) or internal lysines of the E3 ligase itself (auto-ubiquitylation). In conclusion, three different in vitro protocols are provided that are fast and easy to perform to address E3 ligase catalytic functionality.

In Vitro Analysis of E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Function

The present study provides detailed in vitro ubiquitylation assay protocols for the analysis of E3 ubiquitin ligase catalytic activity. Recombinant proteins were expressed using prokaryotic systems such as Escherichia coli culture.

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to internal lysine residue(s) of a substrate protein, a process termed ubiquitylation, represents one of the ...

Construction of Homozygous Mutants of Migratory Locust Using CRISPR/Cas9 Technology

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, is not only one of the worldwide plague locusts that caused huge economic losses to human beings but also an important research model for insect metamorphosis. The CRISPR/Cas9 system can accurately locate at a specific DNA locus and cleave within the target site, efficiently introducing double-strand breaks to induce target gene knockout or integrate new gene fragments into the specific locus. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing is a powerful tool for addressing questions encountered in locust research as well as a promising technology for locust control. This study provides a systematic protocol for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockout with the complex of Cas9 protein and single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) in migratory locusts. The selection of target sites and design of sgRNA are described in detail, followed by in vitro synthesis and verification of the sgRNAs. Subsequent procedures include egg raft collection and tanned-egg separation to achieve successful microinjection with low mortality rate, egg culture,&#160;preliminary estimation of the mutation rate, locust breeding as well as detection, preservation, and passage of the mutants to ensure population stability of the edited locusts. This method can be used as a reference for CRISPR/Cas9 based gene editing applications in migratory locusts as well as in other insects.

This study provides a systematically optimized procedure of CRISPR/Cas9 ribonuclease-based construction of homozygous locust mutants as well as a detailed method for cryopreservation and resuscitation of the locust eggs.

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, is not only one of the worldwide plague locusts that caused huge economic losses to human beings but also an ...

Combining Clearing and Fluorescence Microscopy for Visualising Changes in Gene Expression and Physiological Responses to Plasmodiophora brassicae

Infection of Brassica crops by the soilborne protist Plasmodiophora brassicae leads to gall formation on the underground organs. The formation of galls requires cellular reprogramming and changes in the metabolism of the infected plant. This is necessary to establish a pathogen-oriented physiological sink toward which the host nutrients are redirected. For a complete understanding of this particular plant-pathogen interaction and the mechanisms by which host growth and development are subverted and repatterned, it is essential to track and observe the internal changes accompanying gall formation with cellular resolution. Methods combining fluorescent stains and fluorescent proteins are often employed to study anatomical and physiological responses in plants. Unfortunately, the large size of galls and their low transparency act as major hurdles in performing whole-mount observations under the microscope. Moreover, low transparency limits the employment of fluorescence microscopy to study clubroot disease progression and gall formation. This article presents an optimized method for fixing and clearing galls to facilitate epifluorescence and confocal microscopy for inspecting P. brassicae-infected galls. A tissue-clearing protocol for rapid optical clearing was used followed by vibratome sectioning to detect anatomical changes and localize gene expression with promoter fusions and reporter lines tagged with fluorescent proteins. This method will prove useful for studying cellular and physiological responses in other pathogen-triggered structures in plants, such as nematode-induced syncytia and root knots, as well as leaf galls and deformations caused by insects.

Combining Clearing and Fluorescence Microscopy for Visualising Changes in Gene Expression and Physiological Responses to Plasmodiophora brassicae

The present protocol describes an optimized method for the histological observation of galls induced by Plasmodiophora brassicae. Vibratome sections of hypocotyls are cleared before fluorescence imaging to study the involvement of transcription factors and phytohormones during disease progression. This protocol overcomes resin embedding limitations, enabling in planta visualization of fluorescent proteins.

Infection of Brassica crops by the soilborne protist Plasmodiophora brassicae leads to gall formation on the underground organs. The formation of galls ...