We would like to thanks Dr Antonio Miranda-Vizuete for his valuable help. We also like to express our gratitude to Salma Boulayoune and Isabel Caballero for valuable technical assistance. This work was financed by a grant from the Junta de Andaluc&#305;a (BIO-272). This research has been carried out in agreement with current laws governing genetic experimentation in Europe.

1: Osmotic avoidance assay.
<ol>
<li>About 16-24 hours before the assay, pick L4 larval stage animals of each genotype to a fresh NGM plate containing OP50 E. coli andincubate it at 20 &deg;C. Next day start the experiment with young adults.</li>
<li>It is recommended to carry out the assay "blindly". The plates with each strain to be assayed should be relabelled by a second experimenter, performing the assay using the relabelled plates that would be unmasked when the experiment has finished.</li>
<li>The day of the assay, prepare a 4M stock solution of fructose with 1% Congo Red solution and dissolve completely at room temperature. We recommend checking the solution prior to each assay since the dye could precipitate with time.</li>
<li>Annular ring (1 cm diameter) on NGM plate is outlined on the centre of the solid medium, with 15 &mu;l of the red 4M fructose solution. Let the fructose solution soak into the agar, this usually takes between 2 and 5 minutes.</li>
<li>Place individual young adult animals of each strain within the ring and follow over the next 10 minutes to determine the response to the osmotic barrier. Animals avoiding the ring more than six times in a row are classified as normal; those exiting the ring in less than six attempts are considered defective in osmotic sensitivity. 
Note: The control strain must be used in each assay. N2 young adult animals are used as positive controls as they decisively avoid the ring barrier. Animals that have been previously starved, passed through Dauer larvae or are coming from plates that are too dry should not be used. At the beginning, control animals should be evaluated in duplicate, to confirm that the assay plates and the solution are correct.</li>
</ol>
2: Generation of knockdown worms by RNAi feeding.
<ol>
<li>RNAi plates: NGM RNAi feeding plates contains per litre: 17 g agar, 2,5 g peptone, 3.0 g NaCl, 1 ml of 5 mg ml-1 cholesterol; fill the flask to 1 litre with H2O and autoclave. After agar cools to about 65 &deg;C, add 25 ml of 1 M KPO4, pH 6.0, 1 ml of 1 M CaCl2, 1 ml of 1M MgSO4, 0,5 ml carbenicillin (50 mg ml-1) and 1 ml 1M IPTG. If you are starting with prepared solid NGM, melt solid medium by microwaving and subsequently place liquid NGM on the bench to cool and then add KPO4, pH 6.0, CaCl2, MgSO4, carbenicillin and IPTG as indicated previously. 
 Add 10 ml of NGM into each 60 mm Petri dish. Allow cooling and invert plates maintaining them at RT overnight before use. Plates can be stored in a plastic bag at 4 &deg;C for about 4-5 days.</li>
<li>Bacterial preparation and induction: Isolate colonies of E.coli HT115 (DE3) strain, transformed with L4440 vector containing a fragment corresponding to the target gene, onto Luria-Bertani (LB) agar plates (17 g agar, 10 g tryptone, 5 g yeast extract, and 10 g NaCl per litre) containing ampicillin (50 &mu;g/ml) and tetracyclin (15 &mu;g/ml). 
Pick a colony of bacteria and inoculate into LB with 50 &mu;g/ml ampicillin, and grown for 6 8 h with shaking at 37 &deg;C; seed a drop of this culture onto the prepared NGM plates and dry the plates thoroughly before being incubating overnight (12 24 h) at room temperature to allow the bacteria to grow and to begin induction. The incubation was in the dark because tetracycline is light sensitive and it may affect the variability of RNAi assays among plates. 
It is necessary to use a positive and a negative control for RNAi feeding experiments. The positive control is E.coli HT115 cell transformed with the L4440 vector containing the unc-22 gene sequence. The knockdown of unc-22 gene produces a "twitching phenotype". The negative control is E.coli HT115 cell transformed with empty L4440 vector.</li>
<li>Worm handling and scoring: The first day, place L4 stage worms from an NGM plate seeded with OP50 onto NGM plates without bacteria and incubate at 20 &deg;C for 12 hours (fasting). 
The next day, transfer young fasted adult hermaphrodites onto a plate seedded with the bacteria expressing the specific target gene RNAi. Leave 40-48 hours at 20 &deg;C to generate F1 progeny. 
Then place a few F1 adult worms onto another plate seeded with the same bacteria. After 24-48 hours, select and isolate from the F2 progeny, young adults (fully formed protruding vulva with few eggs) and score for phenotypes. 
Note: the RNAi induction in neurons have some limitations because of the refractory properties of the C. elegans nervous system to RNAi. To overcome the problems of this inefficiency in neuron it is recommended to use the rrf-3 strain, a hypersensitive background to the effects of RNAi in neurons 10. In our experiments no differences were found between Bristol N2 and rrf-3 strains for the genes and the phenotype analyzed.</li>
</ol>
3: Strains used.
The C. elegans strains used in this work are shown in Table 1. Mutant strains were out-crossed against N2 wild-type at least four times to remove unwanted random mutations that could have been generated during the mutagenesis protocol. 
OP50 E. coli strain was suppliied by Caenorhabditis Genetic Center, University of Minnesota, USA. E.coli HT115 (DE3) with the plasmid pL4440 carrying nrx-1 (JA:C29A12.5) and nlg-1 (JA:C40C9.5) gene fragments were provided by Dr. Peter Askjaer, Centro Andaluz de Biolog&iacute;a del Desarrollo (CABD), CSIC Universidad Pablo Olavide, Sevilla, Spain.
4: Representative results.
Illustrative results are represented in Figures 1 and 2. Ten animals of each strain and a minimum of three replica experiments were carried out. 
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/1616/1616Fig1.jpg"/> Figure 1. Experiments of osmotic avoidance behavior. 
Control strains and nrx-1 (ok1649 and tm1961)V deficient mutantworms respond by reversing backwards when they encounter an osmotic barrier (4M fructose). nlg-1 (ok259 and tm474) X mutants fail to detect this barrier. Double mutants deficient in nlg-1 and nrx-1, strains CRR21 (ok1649 ; ok259)VX and CRR23 (tm1961; ok259)VX recovered the wild type phenotype. The * indicates significant differences (P &le; 0.001) by t-student test, in the response of each strain to the Bristol N2 wild-type by t-student test 
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/1616/1616Fig2.jpg"/> Figure 2. Experiments with knockdown worms by RNAi feeding. E.coli HT115 (DE3) transformed with empty pL4440 vector or containing a fragment corresponding to the target genes nrx-1 or nlg-1 were used to fed different worm strains. The * indicates significant differences (P &le; 0.001) by t-student test, in the response of the N2 strain fed with bacteria carrying the pL4440 vector with a fragment targeting the nlg-1 gene in comparison with the N2 strain fed with empty pL4440 vector.

<ol>
	<li>Sudhof, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature. 455 (7215), 903-903 (2008).</li><li>Fabrichny, I. P., Leone, P., Sulzenbacher, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Neuron. 56 (6), 979-979 (2007).</li><li>Garber, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Science. 317 (5835), 190-190 (2007).</li><li>Wang, K., Zhang, H., Ma, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature. 459 (7246), 528-528 (2009).</li><li>Ward, S., Thomson, N., White, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Journal of comparative neurology. 160 (3), 313-313 (1975).</li><li>Bargmann, C. I., Thomas, J. H., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cold+Spring+Harbor+symposia+on+quantitative+biology.">Cold Spring Harbor symposia on quantitative biology.</a> 55, 529-529 (1990).</li><li>White, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomsom, J. N., Brenner, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 314, 1-1 (1986).</li><li>Culotti, J. G., Russell, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Genetics. 90 (2), 243-243 (1978).</li><li>Fire, A., Xu, S., Montgomery, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature. 391 (6669), 806-806 (1998).</li><li>Timmons, L., Fire, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature. 395 (6705), 854-854 (1998).</li><li>Simmer, F., Tijsterman, M., Parrish, S., Koushika, S. P., Nonet, M. L., Fire, A., Ahringer, J., Plasterk, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Curr Biol. 12, 1317-1317 (2002).</li><li>Missler, M., Zhang, W., Rohlmann, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature. 423 (6943), 939-939 (2003).</li><li>Varoqueaux, F., Aramuni, G., Rawson, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Neuron. 51 (6), 741-741 (2006).</li><li>Graf, E. R., Zhang, X., Jin, S. X., Scheiffele, P., Fan, J., Choih, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cell. 119 (7), 1013-1013 (2004).</li><li>Scheiffele, P., Fan, J., Choih, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cell. 101 (6), 657-657 (2000).</li><li>Jamain, S., Quach, H., Betancur, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature genetics. 34 (1), 27-27 (2003).</li><li>Szatmari, P., Paterson, A. D., Zwaigenbaum , L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nature genetics. 39 (3), 319-319 (2007).</li></ol>

Neurexins and neuroligins perform essential roles in synaptic transmission11 and differentiation of synaptic connections 12. Both molecules have been identified as candidate genes for autism 13,14.
In this video we show a simple method which allows us to study the effect of genes affecting the osmotic avoidance response in C. elegans. Neuroligin deficient mutants are defective in detecting osmotic strength; but mutants deficient in neurexin show a res...

Table 1. C. elegans strains.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Strain </td>
 <td>Gene</td>
 <td>Allele</td>
 <td>Source</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Bristol N2</td>
 <td>-</td>
 <td>-</td>
 <td>aCGC</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>VC228</td>
 <td>nlg-1</td>
 <td>ok259</td>
 <td>CGC</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>FX00474</td>
 <td>nlg-1</td>
 <td>tm474</td>
 <td>bNBP-JAPAN</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>VC1416</td>
 <td>nrx-1</td>
 <td>ok1649</td>
 <td>CGC</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>FX1961</td>
 <td>nrx-1</td>
 <td>tm1961</td>
 <td>NBP-JAPAN</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NL2099</td>
 <td>rrf-3</td>
 <td>pk1436</td>
 <td>CGC</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CRR21</td>
 <td>nrx-1; nlg-1</td>
 <td>ok1649; ok259</td>
 <td>This work</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CRR22</td>
 <td>nrx-1; nlg-1</td>
 <td>tm1961;ok259</td>
 <td>This work</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
a. Caenorhabditis Genetic Center, University of Minnesota, USA. 
b. National Bioresource Project for the Experimental Animal "Nematode C. elegans". Tokyo Women's Medical University, Japan.

osmotic avoidance in caenorhabditis elegans: synaptic function of two genes, orthologues of human nrxn1 and nlgn1, as candidates for autism

Neurexins and neuroligins are cell adhesion molecules present in excitatory and inhibitory synapses, and they are required for correct neuron network function1. These proteins are found at the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes 2. Studies in mice indicate that neurexins and neurologins have an essential role in synaptic transmission 1. Recent reports have shown that altered neuronal connections during the development of the human nervous system could constitute the basis of the etiology of numerous cases of autism spectrum disorders 3.
Caenorhabditis elegans could be used as an experimental tool to facilitate the study of the functioning of synaptic components, because of its simplicity for laboratory experimentation, and given that its nervous system and synaptic wiring has been fully characterized. In C. elegans nrx-1 and nlg-1 genes are orthologous to human NRXN1 and NLGN1 genes which encode alpha-neurexin-1 and neuroligin-1 proteins, respectively. In humans and nematodes, the organization of neurexins and neuroligins is similar in respect to functional domains.
The head of the nematode contains the amphid, a sensory organ of the nematode, which mediates responses to different stimuli, including osmotic strength. The amphid is made of 12 sensory bipolar neurons with ciliated dendrites and one presynaptic terminal axon 4. Two of these neurons, named ASHR and ASHL are particularly important in osmotic sensory function, detecting water-soluble repellents with high osmotic strength 5. The dendrites of these two neurons lengthen to the tip of the mouth and the axons extend to the nerve ring, where they make synaptic connections with other neurons determining the behavioral response 6.
To evaluate the implications of neurexin and neuroligin in high osmotic strength avoidance, we show the different response of C. elegans mutants defective in nrx-1 and nlg-1 genes, using a method based on a 4M fructose ring 7. The behavioral phenotypes were confirmed using specific RNAi clones 8. In C. elegans, the dsRNA required to trigger RNAi can be administered by feeding 9. The delivery of dsRNA through food induces the RNAi interference of the gene of interest thus allowing the identification of genetic components and network pathways.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Osmotic Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: Synaptic Function of Two Genes, Orthologues of Human NRXN1 and NLGN1, as Candidates for Autism at JoVE.com

Osmotic Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: Synaptic Function of Two Genes, Orthologues of Human NRXN1 and NLGN1, as Candidates for Autism

Neurexins and neuroligins are membrane-neuron adhesion proteins which perform essential roles in synaptic differentiation and transmission. Neuroligin deficient mutants of C. elegans are defective in detecting osmotic strength, but when they also contain a mutation in the gene coding neurexin, they recover the wild type phenotype.

Osmotic Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: Synaptic Function of Two Genes, Orthologues of Human NRXN1 and NLGN1, as Candidates for Autism

Neurexins and neuroligins are cell adhesion molecules present in excitatory and inhibitory synapses, and they are required for correct neuron network ...

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11.7K Views.  Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Córdoba. Neurexins and neuroligins are membrane-neuron adhesion proteins which perform essential roles in synaptic differentiation and transmission. Neuroligin deficient mutants of C. elegans are defective in detecting osmotic strength, but when they also contain a mutation in the gene coding neurexin, they recover the wild type phenotype.

Video: Osmotic Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: Synaptic Function of Two Genes, Orthologues of Human NRXN1 and NLGN1, as Candidates for Autism

Isolation and In vitro Activation of Caenorhabditis elegans Sperm

Males and hermaphrodites are the two naturally found sexual forms in the nematode C. elegans. The amoeboid sperm are produced by both males and hermaphrodites. In the earlier phase of gametogenesis, the germ cells of hermaphrodites differentiate into limited number of sperm - around 300 - and are stored in a small 'bag' called the spermatheca. Later on, hermaphrodites continually produce oocytes1. In contrast, males produce exclusively sperm throughout their adulthood. The males produce so much sperm that it accounts for &gt;50% of the total cells in a typical adult worm2. Therefore, isolating sperm from males is easier than from that of hermaphrodites.
Only a small proportion of males are naturally generated due to spontaneous non-disjunction of X chromosome3. Crossing hermaphrodites with males or more conveniently, the introduction of mutations to give rise to Him (High Incidence of Males) phenotype are some of strategies through which one can enrich the male population3.
Males can be easily distinguished from hermaphrodites by observing the tail morphology4. Hermaphrodite's tail is pointed, whereas male tail is rounded with mating structures.
Cutting the tail releases vast number of spermatids stored inside the male reproductive tract. Dissection is performed under a stereo microscope using 27 gauge needles. Since spermatids are not physically connected with any other cells, hydraulic pressure expels internal contents of male body, including spermatids2.
Males are directly dissected on a small drop of 'Sperm Medium'. Spermatids are sensitive to alteration in the pH. Hence, HEPES, a compound with good buffering capacity is used in sperm media. Glucose and other salts present in sperm media help maintain osmotic pressure to maintain the integrity of sperm.
Post-meiotic differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa is termed spermiogenesis or sperm activation. Shakes5, and Nelson6 previously showed that round spermatids can be induced to differentiate into spermatozoa by adding various activating compounds including Pronase E. Here we demonstrate in vitro spermiogenesis of C. elegans spermatids using Pronase E.
Successful spermiogenesis is pre-requisite for fertility and hence the mutants defective in spermiogenesis are sterile. Hitherto several mutants have been shown to be defective specifically in spermiogenesis process7. Abnormality found during in vitro activation of novel Spe (Spermatogenesis defective) mutants would help us discover additional players participating in this event.

Isolation and In vitro Activation of Caenorhabditis elegans Sperm

A protocol for isolating and activating spermatids from male C. elegans is described here. Cutting the posterior end of male releases spermatids. The spermatids can be activated by addition of protease.

Males and hermaphrodites are the two naturally found sexual forms in the nematode C. elegans. The amoeboid sperm are produced by both males and ...

Time-lapse Microscopy of Early Embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans has often been used as a model system in studies of early developmental processes. The transparency of the 
embryos, the genetic resources, and the relative ease of transformation are qualities that make C. elegans an excellent model for early embryogenesis. Laser-based 
confocal microscopy and fluorescently labeled tags allow researchers to follow specific cellular structures and proteins in the developing embryo. For example, 
one can follow specific organelles, such as lysosomes or mitochondria, using fluorescently labeled dyes. These dyes can be delivered to the early embryo by means 
of microinjection into the adult gonad. Also, the localization of specific proteins can be followed using fluorescent protein tags. Examples are presented here 
demonstrating the use of a fluorescent lysosomal dye as well as fluorescently tagged histone and ubiquitin proteins. The labeled histone is used to visualize 
the DNA and thus identify the stage of the cell cycle. GFP-tagged ubiquitin reveals the dynamics of ubiquitinated vesicles in the early embryo. Observations 
of labeled lysosomes and GFP:: ubiquitin can be used to determine if there is colocalization between ubiquitinated vesicles and lysosomes. A technique for 
the microinjection of the lysosomal dye is presented. Techniques for generating transgenenic strains are presented elsewhere (1, 2). For imaging, embryos 
are cut out of adult hermaphrodite nematodes and mounted onto 2% agarose pads followed by time-lapse microscopy on a standard laser scanning confocal 
microscope or a spinning disk confocal microscope. This methodology provides for the high resolution visualization of early embryogenesis.

Time-lapse Microscopy of Early Embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

This article describes a technique for the visualization of the early events of embryogenesis in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

Caenorhabditis elegans has often been used as a model system in studies of early developmental processes.  The transparency of the 
embryos, the genetic ...

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism 1. C. elegans possesses key attributes such as simplicity, transparency and short life cycle that have made it a suitable experimental system for fundamental biological studies for many years 2. Discoveries in this nematode have broad implications because many cellular and molecular processes that control animal development are evolutionary conserved 3.
C. elegans life cycle goes through an embryonic stage and four larval stages before animals reach adulthood. Development can take 2 to 4 days depending on the temperature. In each of the stages several characteristic traits can be observed. The knowledge of its complete cell lineage 4,5 together with the deep annotation of its genome turn this nematode into a great model in fields as diverse as the neurobiology 6, aging 7,8, stem cell biology 9 and germ line biology 10. 
An additional feature that makes C. elegans an attractive model to work with is the possibility of obtaining populations of worms synchronized at a specific stage through a relatively easy protocol. The ease of maintaining and propagating this nematode added to the possibility of synchronization provide a powerful tool to obtain large amounts of worms, which can be used for a wide variety of small or high-throughput experiments such as RNAi screens, microarrays, massive sequencing, immunoblot or in situ hybridization, among others. 
Because of its transparency, C. elegans structures can be distinguished under the microscope using Differential Interference Contrast microscopy, also known as Nomarski microscopy. The use of a fluorescent DNA binder, DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), for instance, can lead to the specific identification and localization of individual cells, as well as subcellular structures/defects associated to them.

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

The easiness of maintaining and propagating the nematode C. elegans make it a nice model organism to work with. The possibility of synchronizing worms allows the work with a significant amount of subjects at the same developmental stage, what facilitates the study of one particular process in many animals.

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has ...

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human obesity and its associated pathologies. Several previous methodologies developed for the visualization of C. elegans triglyceride-rich fat stores have proven to be erroneous, highlighting cellular compartments other than lipid droplets. Other methods require specialized equipment, are time-consuming, or yield inconsistent results. We introduce a rapid, reproducible, fixative-based Nile red staining method for the accurate and rapid detection of neutral lipid droplets in C. elegans. A short fixation step in 40% isopropanol makes animals completely permeable to Nile red, which is then used to stain animals. Spectral properties of this lipophilic dye allow it to strongly and selectively fluoresce in the yellow-green spectrum only when in a lipid-rich environment, but not in more polar environments. Thus, lipid droplets can be visualized on a fluorescent microscope equipped with simple GFP imaging capability after only a brief Nile red staining step in isopropanol. The speed, affordability, and reproducibility of this protocol make it ideally suited for high throughput screens. We also demonstrate a paired method for the biochemical determination of triglycerides and phospholipids using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. This more rigorous protocol should be used as confirmation of results obtained from the Nile red microscopic lipid determination. We anticipate that these techniques will become new standards in the field of C. elegans metabolic research.

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

We present robust biochemical and microscopic methods for studying Caenorhabditis elegans lipid stores. A rapid, simple, fixing-staining procedure for fluorescent lipid droplet imaging leverages the spectral properties of the lipophilic dye Nile red. We then present biochemical measurement of triglycerides and phospholipids using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important  model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as  it relates to human ...

Prostaglandin Extraction and Analysis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is emerging as a powerful animal model to study the biology of lipids1-9. Prostaglandins are an important class of eicosanoids, which are lipid signals derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)10-14. These signalling molecules are difficult to study because of their low abundance and reactive nature. The characteristic feature of prostaglandins is a cyclopentane ring structure located within the fatty acid backbone. In mammals, prostaglandins can be formed through cyclooxygenase enzyme-dependent and -independent pathways10,15. C. elegans synthesizes a wide array of prostaglandins independent of cyclooxygenases6,16,17. A large class of F-series prostaglandins has been identified, but the study of eicosanoids is at an early stage with ample room for new discoveries. Here we describe a procedure for extracting and analyzing prostaglandins and other eicosanoids. Charged lipids are extracted from mass worm cultures using a liquid-liquid extraction technique and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). The inclusion of deuterated analogs of prostaglandins, such as PGF2 &alpha;-d4 as an internal standard is recommended for quantitative analysis. Multiple reaction monitoring or MRM can be used to quantify and compare specific prostaglandin types between wild-type and mutant animals. Collision-induced decomposition or MS/MS can be used to obtain information on important structural features. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) survey scans of a selected mass range, such as m/z 315-360 can be used to evaluate global changes in prostaglandin levels. We provide examples of all three analyses. These methods will provide researchers with a toolset for discovering novel eicosanoids and delineating their metabolic pathways.

Prostaglandin Extraction and Analysis in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this paper, we describe an optimized procedure for extracting and analyzing prostaglandins and other eicosanoids from C. elegans using LC-MS/MS.

Caenorhabditis elegans is emerging as a powerful animal model to study the biology of lipids1-9. Prostaglandins are an important class of eicosanoids, ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the function and regulation of protein folding was studied in vitro, in isolated tissue culture cells and in unicellular organisms. Recent studies have uncovered links between protein homeostasis (proteostasis), metabolism, development, aging, and temperature-sensing. These findings have led to the development of new tools for monitoring protein folding in the model metazoan organism Caenorhabditis elegans. In our laboratory, we combine behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical approaches using temperature-sensitive or naturally occurring metastable proteins as sensors of the folding environment to monitor protein misfolding. Behavioral assays that are associated with the misfolding of a specific protein provide a simple and powerful readout for protein folding, allowing for the fast screening of genes and conditions that modulate folding. Likewise, such misfolding can be associated with protein mislocalization in the cell. Monitoring protein localization can, therefore, highlight changes in cellular folding capacity occurring in different tissues, at various stages of development and in the face of changing conditions. Finally, using biochemical tools ex vivo, we can directly monitor protein stability and conformation. Thus, by combining behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical techniques, we are able to monitor protein misfolding at the resolution of the organism, the cell, and the protein, respectively.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

To study the relationship between protein homeostasis, stress and aging, we monitored changes in protein folding by following protein dysfunction, protein localization in the cell and protein stability at the organismal, cellular and protein levels, using the genetically tractable metazoan Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system.

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the ...

Dietary Supplementation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Caenorhabditis elegans

Fatty acids are essential for numerous cellular functions. They serve as efficient energy storage molecules, make up the hydrophobic core of membranes, and participate in various signaling pathways. Caenorhabditis elegans synthesizes all of the enzymes necessary to produce a range of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. This, combined with the simple anatomy and range of available genetic tools, make it an attractive model to study fatty acid function. In order to investigate the genetic pathways that mediate the physiological effects of dietary fatty acids, we have developed a method to supplement the C. elegans diet with unsaturated fatty acids. Supplementation is an effective means to alter the fatty acid composition of worms and can also be used to rescue defects in fatty acid-deficient mutants. Our method uses nematode growth medium agar (NGM) supplemented with fatty acidsodium salts. The fatty acids in the supplemented plates become incorporated into the membranes of the bacterial food source, which is then taken up by the C. elegans that feed on the supplemented bacteria. We also describe a gas chromatography protocol to monitor the changes in fatty acid composition that occur in supplemented worms. This is an efficient way to supplement the diets of both large and small populations of C. elegans, allowing for a range of applications for this method.

Dietary Supplementation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful model to explore the functions of polyunsaturated fatty acids in development and physiology. This protocol describes an efficient method of supplementing the C. elegans diet with polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Fatty acids are essential for numerous cellular functions. They serve as efficient energy storage molecules, make up the hydrophobic core of membranes, ...

Measuring the Osmotic Water Permeability Coefficient (Pf) of Spherical Cells: Isolated Plant Protoplasts as an Example

Studying AQP regulation mechanisms is crucial for the understanding of water relations at both the cellular and the whole plant levels. Presented here is a simple and very efficient method for the determination of the osmotic water permeability coefficient (Pf) in plant protoplasts, applicable in principle also to other spherical cells such as frog oocytes. The first step of the assay is the isolation of protoplasts from the plant tissue of interest by enzymatic digestion into a chamber with an appropriate isotonic solution. The second step consists of an osmotic challenge assay: protoplasts immobilized on the bottom of the chamber are submitted to a constant perfusion starting with an isotonic solution and followed by a hypotonic solution. The cell swelling is video recorded. In the third step, the images are processed offline to yield volume changes, and the time course of the volume changes is correlated with the time course of the change in osmolarity of the chamber perfusion medium, using a curve fitting procedure written in Matlab (the &#8216;PfFit&#8217;), to yield Pf.

Measuring the Osmotic Water Permeability Coefficient Pf of Spherical Cells: Isolated Plant Protoplasts as an Example

Measuring the osmotic water permeability coefficient (Pf) of cells can help understand the regulatory mechanisms of aquaporins (AQPs). Pf determination in spherical plant cell protoplasts presented here involves protoplasts isolation and numerical analysis of their initial rate of volume change as a result of an osmotic challenge during constant bath perfusion.

Studying AQP regulation mechanisms is crucial for the understanding of water relations at both the cellular and the whole plant levels. Presented here is ...

Sample Preparation and Imaging of Exosomes by Transmission Electron Microscopy

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The contents and morphology of the secreted vesicles reflect cell behavior or physiological status, for example cell growth, migration, cleavage, and death. The exosomes&#39; role may depend highly on size, and the size of exosomes varies from 30 to 300 nm. The most widely used method for exosome imaging is negative staining, while other results are based on Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy. The typical exosome&#39;s morphology assessed through negative staining is a cup-shape, but further details are not yet clear. An exosome well-characterized through structural study is necessary particular in medical and pharmaceutical fields. Therefore, function-dependent morphology should be verified by electron microscopy techniques such as labeling a specific protein in the detailed structure of exosome. To observe detailed structure, ultrathin sectioned images and negative stained images of exosomes were compared. In this protocol, we suggest transmission electron microscopy for the imaging of exosomes including negative staining, whole mount immuno-staining, block preparation, thin section, and immuno-gold labelling.

This protocol describes the various techniques necessary for transmission electron microscopy including negative staining, ultrathin sectioning for detailed structure, and immuno-gold labelling to determine the positions of specific proteins in exosomes.

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The ...

Modeling Age-Associated Neurodegenerative Diseases in Caenorhabditis elegans

Battling human neurodegenerative pathologies and managing their pervasive socioeconomic impact is becoming a global priority. Notwithstanding their detrimental effects on the human life quality and the healthcare system, the majority of human neurodegenerative disorders still remain incurable and non-preventable. Therefore, the development of novel therapeutic interventions against such maladies is becoming a pressing urgency. Age-associated deterioration of neuronal circuits and function is evolutionarily conserved in organisms as diverse as the lowly worm Caenorhabditis elegans and humans, signifying similarities in the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. C. elegans is a highly malleable genetic model, which offers a well-characterized nervous system, body transparency and a diverse repertoire of genetic and imaging techniques to assess neuronal activity and quality control during ageing. Here, we introduce and describe methodologies utilizing some versatile nematode models, including hyperactivated ion channel-induced necrosis (e.g., deg-3(d) and mec-4(d)) and protein aggregate (e.g., &#945;-syunclein and poly-glutamate)-induced neurotoxicity, to monitor and dissect the cellular and molecular underpinnings of age-related neuronal breakdown. A combination of these animal neurodegeneration models, together with genetic and pharmacological screens for cell death modulators will lead to an unprecedented understanding of age-related breakdown of neuronal function and will provide critical insights with broad relevance to human health and quality of life.

Modeling Age-Associated Neurodegenerative Diseases in Caenorhabditis elegans

Here, we introduce and describe widely accessible methodologies utilizing some versatile nematode models, including hyperactivated ion channel-induced necrosis and protein aggregate-induced neurotoxicity, to monitor and dissect the cellular and molecular underpinnings of age-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Battling human neurodegenerative pathologies and managing their pervasive socioeconomic impact is becoming a global priority. Notwithstanding their ...

Osmotic Avoidance in Caenorhabditis elegans: Synaptic Function of Two Genes, Orthologues of Human NRXN1 and NLGN1, as Candidates for Autism

Summary

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Chapters in this video

Isolation and In vitro Activation of Caenorhabditis elegans Sperm

Time-lapse Microscopy of Early Embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

Prostaglandin Extraction and Analysis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

Dietary Supplementation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Caenorhabditis elegans

Measuring the Osmotic Water Permeability Coefficient (P_f) of Spherical Cells: Isolated Plant Protoplasts as an Example

Sample Preparation and Imaging of Exosomes by Transmission Electron Microscopy

Modeling Age-Associated Neurodegenerative Diseases in Caenorhabditis elegans