We thank BBSRC for funding a PhD for Mr. Frazer Bye.

1. Electrospinning of Random and Aligned Fibres
Electrospinning creates fine fibrous networks by using electric potential to draw a polymer solution towards an earthed collector. Collectors can be in very many shapes and can be static or, more commonly, rotating. The solvent evaporates before the solution arrives at the collector and the jet solidifies into a fibre.
Each polymer requires its own set of conditions to produce a given type of fibre. The concentration o...

<ol>
	<li>Canton, I., McKean, R., Charnley, M., Blackwood, K., Fiorica, C., Ryan, A., MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+an+Ibuprofen-releasing+biodegradable+PLA/PGA+electrospun+scaffold+for+tissue+regeneration.">Development of an Ibuprofen-releasing biodegradable PLA/PGA electrospun scaffold for tissue regeneration.</a> Biotechnology and bioengineering. 105, 396-408 (2010).</li><li>Blackwood, K., McKean, R., Canton, I., Freeman, C., Franklin, K., Cole, A., Brook, I., Farthing, P., Rimmer, S., Haycock, J., Ryan, A., MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+biodegradable+electrospun+scaffolds+for+dermal+replacement.">Development of biodegradable electrospun scaffolds for dermal replacement.</a> Biomaterials. 29, 3091-3104 (2008).</li><li>Yang, F., Maurugan, R., Wang, S., Ramakrishna, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrospinning+of+nano/micro+scale+poly(L-lactic+acid)+aligned+fibers+and+their+potential+in+neural+tissue+engineering.">Electrospinning of nano/micro scale poly(L-lactic acid) aligned fibers and their potential in neural tissue engineering.</a> Biomaterials. 26, 2603-2610 (2005).</li><li>Sittichokechaiwut, A., Edwards, J. H., Scutt, A. M., Reilly, G. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Short+bouts+of+mechanical+loading+are+as+effective+as+dexamethasone+at+inducing+matrix+production+by+human+bone+marrow+mesenchymal+stem+cell.">Short bouts of mechanical loading are as effective as dexamethasone at inducing matrix production by human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell.</a> Eur. Cell Mater. 20, 45-57 (2010).</li><li>Sill, T. J., von Recum, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrospinning:+applications+in+drug+delivery+and+tissue+engineering.">Electrospinning: applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering.</a> Biomaterials. 29 (13), 1989-2006 (2008).</li><li>Deitzel, J., Kleinmeyer, J., Harris, D., Beck Tan, N. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+processing+variables+on+the+morphology+of+electrospun+nanofibers+and+textiles.">The effect of processing variables on the morphology of electrospun nanofibers and textiles.</a> Polymer. 42, 261-272 (2001).</li><li>Fridrikh, S., Yu, J., Brenner, M., Rutledge, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Controlling+the+fiber+diameter+during+electrospinning.">Controlling the fiber diameter during electrospinning.</a> Physical review letters. 90, 1-4 (2003).</li><li>Fong, H., Chun, I., Reneker, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beaded+nanofibers+formed+during+electrospinning.">Beaded nanofibers formed during electrospinning.</a> Polymer. 40 (16), 4585-4592 (1999).</li><li>Selim, M., Bullock, A. J., Blackwood, K. A., Chapple, C. R., MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developing+biodegradable+scaffolds+for+tissue+engineering+of+the+urethra.">Developing biodegradable scaffolds for tissue engineering of the urethra.</a> BJU Int. 107 (2), 296-302 (2010).</li><li>Tong, H. -. W., Wang, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+investigation+into+the+influence+of+electrospinning+parameters+on+the+diameter+and+alignment+of+poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate)+fibers.">An investigation into the influence of electrospinning parameters on the diameter and alignment of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) fibers.</a> Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 120 (3), 1694-1706 (2011).</li><li>Tong, H. -. W., Wang, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrospinning+of+poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate)+fibrous+tissue+engineering+scaffolds+in+two+different+electric+fields.">Electrospinning of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) fibrous tissue engineering scaffolds in two different electric fields.</a> Polymer Engineering &amp; Science. 51 (7), 1325-1338 (2011).</li><li>Retzepi, M., Donos, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guided+Bone+Regeneration:+biological+principle+and+therapeutic+applications.">Guided Bone Regeneration: biological principle and therapeutic applications.</a> Clinical oral implants research. 21, 567-576 (2010).</li><li>Moreau, J., Caccamese, J., Coletti, D., Sauk, J., Fisher, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+engineering+solutions+for+cleft+palates.">Tissue engineering solutions for cleft palates.</a> Journal of oral maxillofacial. 65, 2503-2511 (2007).</li><li>Yang, F., Both, S., Yang, X., Walboomers, X., Jansen, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+an+electrospun+nano-apatite/PCL+composite+membrane+for+GTR/GBR+application.">Development of an electrospun nano-apatite/PCL composite membrane for GTR/GBR application.</a> Acta biomaterialia. 5, 3295-3304 (2009).</li><li>Yoshimoto, H., Shin, Y., Terai, H., Vacanti, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+biodegradable+nanofiber+scaffold+by+electrospinning+and+its+potential+for+bone+tissue+engineering.">A biodegradable nanofiber scaffold by electrospinning and its potential for bone tissue engineering.</a> Biomaterials. 24, 2077-2082 (2003).</li><li>Telemeco, T., Ayres, C., Bowlin, G., Wnek, G., Boland, E., Cohen, N., Baumgarten, C., Mathews, J., Simpson, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+cellular+infiltration+into+tissue+engineering+scaffolds+composed+of+submicron+diameter+fibrils+produced+by+electrospinning.">Regulation of cellular infiltration into tissue engineering scaffolds composed of submicron diameter fibrils produced by electrospinning.</a> Acta biomaterialia. 1, 377-385 (2005).</li></ol>

Electrospinning is a very popular technique for producing scaffolds for tissue engineering.14, 15, 16 While it is relatively simple to produce basic electrospun scaffolds for experimental use the technique is also complex and multifaceted with many variables.6 There are many studies describing how the electrospinning parameters determine the scaffold produced. In this study the focus is on the considerable challenges post production to make scaffolds of appropriate architectures and mechanical pr...

<table border="1">
<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly lactic acid</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>81273</td>
 <td>Inherent viscosity ~2.0dl/g</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly &epsilon;-caprolactone</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate 12:1</td>
 <td>Goodfellow</td>
 <td>578-446-59</td>
 <td>PHB88/PHV12</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dichloromethane</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich or Fisher</td>
 <td>270997 or D/1850/17</td>
 <td>&gt;99.8% contains 50-150ppm amylene stabiliser</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>50 multi coloured balloons</td>
 <td>Wilkinson&rsquo;s Hardware Stores Ltd.</td>
 <td>0105790</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Goat anti-rabbit IgG (FC):FITC</td>
 <td>AbDserotec</td>
 <td>STAR121F</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Rabbit anti-human alpha elastin</td>
 <td>AbDserotec</td>
 <td>4060-1060</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Screw Cap GL45 PP 2 Port, pk/2</td>
 <td>SLS</td>
 <td>1129750</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>4&prime;,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich&nbsp;</td>
 <td>32670</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CellTracker&nbsp; green CMFDA</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>C7025</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CellTracker&nbsp; red CMTX</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>C34552</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

postproduction processing of electrospun fibres for tissue engineering

Electrospinning is a commonly used and versatile method to produce scaffolds (often biodegradable) for 3D tissue engineering.1, 2, 3 Many tissues in vivo undergo biaxial distension to varying extents such as skin, bladder, pelvic floor and even the hard palate as children grow. In producing scaffolds for these purposes there is a need to develop scaffolds of appropriate biomechanical properties (whether achieved without or with cells) and which are sterile for clinical use. The focus of this paper is not how to establish basic electrospinning parameters (as there is extensive literature on electrospinning) but on how to modify spun scaffolds post production to make them fit for tissue engineering purposes - here thickness, mechanical properties and sterilisation (required for clinical use) are considered and we also describe how cells can be cultured on scaffolds and subjected to biaxial strain to condition them for specific applications.
Electrospinning tends to produce thin sheets; as the electrospinning collector becomes coated with insulating fibres it becomes a poor conductor such that fibres no longer deposit on it. Hence we describe approaches to produce thicker structures by heat or vapour annealing increasing the strength of scaffolds but not necessarily the elasticity. Sequential spinning of scaffolds of different polymers to achieve complex scaffolds is also described. Sterilisation methodologies can adversely affect strength and elasticity of scaffolds. We compare three methods for their effects on the biomechanical properties on electrospun scaffolds of poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA).
Imaging of cells on scaffolds and assessment of production of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins by cells on scaffolds is described. Culturing cells on scaffolds in vitro can improve scaffold strength and elasticity but the tissue engineering literature shows that cells often fail to produce appropriate ECM when cultured under static conditions. There are few commercial systems available that allow one to culture cells on scaffolds under dynamic conditioning regimes - one example is the Bose Electroforce 3100 which can be used to exert a conditioning programme on cells in scaffolds held using mechanical grips within a media filled chamber.4 An approach to a budget cell culture bioreactor for controlled distortion in 2 dimensions is described. We show that cells can be induced to produce elastin under these conditions. Finally assessment of the biomechanical properties of processed scaffolds cultured with or without cells is described.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Postproduction Processing of Electrospun Fibres for Tissue Engineering at JoVE.com

Postproduction Processing of Electrospun Fibres for Tissue Engineering

Electrospun scaffolds can be processed post production for tissue engineering applications. Here we describe methods for spinning complex scaffolds (by consecutive spinning), for making thicker scaffolds (by multi-layering using heat or vapour annealing), for achieving sterility (aseptic production or sterilisation post production) and for achieving appropriate biomechanical properties.

Electrospinning is a commonly used and versatile method to produce  scaffolds (often biodegradable) for 3D tissue engineering.1, 2, 3 Many tissues in vivo ...

postproduction-processing-of-electrospun-fibres-for-tissue-engineering

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

18.0K Views.  University of Sheffield. Electrospun scaffolds can be processed post production for tissue engineering applications. Here we describe methods for spinning complex scaffolds (by consecutive spinning), for making thicker scaffolds (by multi-layering using heat or vapour annealing), for achieving sterility (aseptic production or sterilisation post production) and for achieving appropriate biomechanical properties.

Video: Postproduction Processing of Electrospun Fibres for Tissue Engineering

Electrospun scaffolds can be processed post production for tissue engineering applications. Here we describe methods for spinning complex scaffolds (by consecutive spinning), for making thicker scaffolds (by multi-layering using heat or vapour annealing), for achieving sterility (aseptic production or sterilisation post production) and for achieving appropriate biomechanical...

controlling electrospun polymer morphology for tissue engineering demonstrated using hepg2 cell line

Controlling Electrospun Polymer Morphology for Tissue Engineering Demonstrated Using hepG2 Cell Line

This method provides the means to test different polycaprolactone fiber morphologies and topographies for the purpose of tissue engineering. Small and large fibers are fabricated with random orientations, aligned orientations, and also porous cryogenically electrospun structures and used as platforms for cell...

electrospun fibrous scaffolds of poly(glycerol-dodecanedioate) for engineering neural tissues from mouse embryonic stem cells

Electrospun Fibrous Scaffolds of Polyglycerol-dodecanedioate for Engineering Neural Tissues From Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

Synthesis and fabrication of electrospun long fibers spanning a larger deposit area via a newly designed collector from a novel biodegradable polymer named poly(glycerol-dodecanoate) (PGD) was reported. The fibers were able to support the growth of cells derived from mouse pluripotent stem...

Electrospun Fibrous Scaffolds of Poly(glycerol-dodecanedioate) for Engineering Neural Tissues From Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

electrospinning fibrous polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering and cell culture

Electrospinning Fibrous Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering and Cell Culture

The process of electrospinning polymers for tissue engineering and cell culture is addressed in this article.  Specifically, the electrospinning of photoreactive macromers with additional processing capabilities of photopatterning and multi-polymer electrospinning is...

production of nanofibrillar patterned collagen for tissue engineering

Author Spotlight: Engineering Biomaterials with Nanoscale Fibrillar Patterning for Regenerative Therapeutics in Traumatic Musculoskeletal Injuries

The following protocol presents a shear-based extrusion method for the fabrication of collagen hydrogels with nanoscale patterned fibrils, which can be applied to a broad range of tissue engineering...

Production of Nanofibrillar Patterned Collagen for Tissue Engineering

capillary force lithography for cardiac tissue engineering

Capillary Force Lithography for Cardiac Tissue Engineering

In this protocol, we demonstrate the fabrication of biomimetic cardiac cell culture substrata made from two distinct polymeric materials using capillary force lithography.  The described methods provide a scalable, cost-effective technique to engineer the structure and function of macroscopic cardiac tissues for in vitro and in vivo...

tissue engineering by intrinsic vascularization in an in vivo tissue engineering chamber

Tissue Engineering by Intrinsic Vascularization in an In Vivo Tissue Engineering Chamber

This is a guideline for constructing in vivo vascularized tissue using a microsurgical arteriovenous loop or a flow-through pedicle configuration inside a tissue engineering chamber. The vascularized tissues generated can be employed for organ regeneration and replacement of tissue defects, as well as for drug testing and disease modeling.

Tissue Engineering by Intrinsic Vascularization in an In Vivo Tissue Engineering Chamber

engineering 3d cellularized collagen gels for vascular tissue regeneration

Engineering 3D Cellularized Collagen Gels for Vascular Tissue Regeneration

In this work, we present a technique for the rapid fabrication of living vascular tissues by direct culturing of collagen, smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. In addition, a new protocol for the mechanical characterization of engineered vascular tissues is...

fabrication of biologically derived injectable materials for myocardial tissue engineering

Fabrication of Biologically Derived Injectable Materials for Myocardial Tissue Engineering

Methods for preparing an injectable matrix gel from decellularized tissue and injecting it into rat myocardium in vivo are...

two methods for decellularization of plant tissues for tissue engineering applications

Two Methods for Decellularization of Plant Tissues for Tissue Engineering Applications

Here we present, and contrast two protocols used to decellularize plant tissues: a detergent-based approach and a detergent-free approach. Both methods leave behind the extracellular matrix of the plant tissues used, which can then be utilized as scaffolds for tissue engineering...

encapsulation of cardiomyocytes in a fibrin hydrogel for cardiac tissue engineering

Encapsulation of Cardiomyocytes in a Fibrin Hydrogel for Cardiac Tissue Engineering

We describe the isolation of neonatal cardiomyocytes and the preparation of the cells for encapsulation in fibrin hydrogel constructs for tissue engineering.  We describe methods for analyzing the tissue engineered myocardium after the culture period including active force generated upon electrical stimulation and cell viability and immunohistological...

cellular encapsulation in 3d hydrogels for tissue engineering 

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

We present protocols for the 3-dimensional (3D) encapsulation of cells within synthetic hydrogels.  The encapsulation procedure is outlined for two commonly used methods of crosslinking (michael-type addition and light-initiated free radical mechanisms), as well as a number of techniques for assessing encapsulated cell behavior.

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering 

automating citrus budwood processing for downstream pathogen detection through instrument engineering

Automating Citrus Budwood Processing for Downstream Pathogen Detection Through Instrument Engineering

We engineered, fabricated, and validated an instrument that rapidly processes phloem-rich bark citrus budwood tissues. Compared to current methods, the budwood tissue extractor (BTE) has increased sample throughput and decreased the required labor and equipment...

preparation of thermoresponsive nanostructured surfaces for tissue engineering

Preparation of Thermoresponsive Nanostructured Surfaces for Tissue Engineering

Nanoscaled sea-island surfaces composed of thermoresponsive block copolymers were fabricated by the Langmuir-Schaefer method for controlling spontaneous cell adhesion and detachment. Both the preparation of the surface and the adhesion and detachment of cells on the surface were...

core/shell printing scaffolds for tissue engineering of tubular structures

Core/shell Printing Scaffolds For Tissue Engineering Of Tubular Structures

Presented here is a simple-to-use, core/shell, three-dimensional bioprinting set-up for one-step fabrication of hollow scaffolds, suitable for tissue engineering of vascular and other tubular...

electrospun nanofiber scaffolds with gradations in fiber organization

Electrospun Nanofiber Scaffolds with Gradations in Fiber Organization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate electrospun nanofiber scaffolds with gradated organization of fibers and explore their applications in regulating cell morphology/orientation. Gradients with regard to physical and chemical properties of the nanofiber scaffolds offer a wide variety of applications in the biomedical...

3d bioprinting of murine cortical astrocytes for engineering neural-like tissue

3D Bioprinting of Murine Cortical Astrocytes for Engineering Neural-Like Tissue

Here we report a method of 3D bioprinting murine cortical astrocytes for biofabricating neural-like tissues to study the functionality of astrocytes in the central nervous system and the mechanisms involving glial cells in neurological diseases and...

melt electrospinning writing of three-dimensional poly(&#949;-caprolactone) scaffolds with controllable morphologies for tissue engineering applications

Melt Electrospinning Writing of Three-dimensional Poly(&amp;#949;-caprolactone) Scaffolds with Controllable Morphologies for Tissue Engineering Applications

This protocol serves as a comprehensive guideline to fabricate scaffolds via electrospinning with polymer melts in a direct writing mode. We systematically outline the process and define the appropriate parameter settings for achieving targeted scaffold...

Melt Electrospinning Writing of Three-dimensional Poly(&#949;-caprolactone) Scaffolds with Controllable Morphologies for Tissue Engineering Applications

design of a biaxial mechanical loading bioreactor for tissue engineering

Design of a Biaxial Mechanical Loading Bioreactor for Tissue Engineering

We designed a novel mechanical loading bioreactor that can apply uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to a cartilage biocomposite prior to transplantation into an articular cartilage...

isolation of murine adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments as vascularization units for tissue engineering

Isolation of Murine Adipose Tissue-derived Microvascular Fragments as Vascularization Units for Tissue Engineering

We present a protocol to isolate adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments that represent promising vascularization units. They can be rapidly isolated, do not require in vitro processing and, thus, may be used for one-step prevascularization in different fields of tissue...

This protocol provides methods for the preparation of an injectable extracellular matrix (ECM) gel for myocardial tissue engineering applications. Briefly, decellularized tissue is lyophilized, milled, enzymatically digested, and then brought to physiological pH. The lyophilization removes all water content from the tissue, resulting in dry ECM that can be ground into a fine powder with a small mill. After milling, the ECM powder is digested with pepsin to form an injectable matrix. After adjustment to pH 7.4, the liquid matrix material can be injected into the myocardium. Results of previous characterization assays have shown that matrix gels produced from decellularized pericardial and myocardial tissue retain native ECM components, including diverse proteins, peptides and glycosaminoglycans. Given the use of this material for tissue engineering, in vivo characterization is especially useful; here, a method for performing an intramural injection into the left ventricular (LV) free wall is presented as a means of analyzing the host response to the matrix gel in a small animal model. Access to the chest cavity is gained through the diaphragm and the injection is made slightly above the apex in the LV free wall. The biologically derived scaffold can be visualized by biotin-labeling before injection and then staining tissue sections with a horse radish peroxidase-conjugated neutravidin and visualizing via diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining. Analysis of the injection region can also be done with histological and immunohistochemical staining. In this way, the previously examined pericardial and myocardial matrix gels were shown to form fibrous, porous networks and promote vessel formation within the injection region.

Methods for preparing an injectable matrix gel from decellularized tissue and injecting it into rat myocardium in vivo are described.

This protocol provides methods for the preparation of an injectable extracellular matrix (ECM) gel for myocardial tissue engineering applications.  ...

Elastomeric PGS Scaffolds in Arterial Tissue Engineering

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading cause of mortality in the US and especially, coronary artery disease increases with an aging population and increasing obesity1. Currently, bypass surgery using autologous vessels, allografts, and synthetic grafts are known as a commonly used for arterial substitutes2. However, these grafts have limited applications when an inner diameter of arteries is less than 6 mm due to low availability, thrombotic complications, compliance mismatch, and late intimal hyperplasia3,4. To overcome these limitations, tissue engineering has been successfully applied as a promising alternative to develop small-diameter arterial constructs that are nonthrombogenic, robust, and compliant. Several previous studies have developed small-diameter arterial constructs with tri-lamellar structure, excellent mechanical properties and burst pressure comparable to native arteries5,6. While high tensile strength and burst pressure by increasing collagen production from a rigid material or cell sheet scaffold, these constructs still had low elastin production and compliance, which is a major problem to cause graft failure after implantation. Considering these issues, we hypothesized that an elastometric biomaterial combined with mechanical conditioning would provide elasticity and conduct mechanical signals more efficiently to vascular cells, which increase extracellular matrix production and support cellular orientation.
The objective of this report is to introduce a fabrication technique of porous tubular scaffolds and a dynamic mechanical conditioning for applying them to arterial tissue engineering. We used a biodegradable elastomer, poly (glycerol sebacate) (PGS)7 for fabricating porous tubular scaffolds from the salt fusion method. Adult primary baboon smooth muscle cells (SMCs) were seeded on the lumen of scaffolds, which cultured in our designed pulsatile flow bioreactor for 3 weeks. PGS scaffolds had consistent thickness and randomly distributed macro- and micro-pores. Mechanical conditioning from pulsatile flow bioreactor supported SMC orientation and enhanced ECM production in scaffolds. These results suggest that elastomeric scaffolds and mechanical conditioning of bioreactor culture may be a promising method for arterial tissue engineering.

Elastomeric PGS scaffolds with vascular smooth muscle cells cultured in a pulsatile flow bioreactor may lead to promising small-diameter arterial constructs with native ECM production in a relatively short culture period.

Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading cause of mortality in the US and especially, coronary artery disease increases with an aging population and ...

Culturing cells in a three dimensional hydrogel environment is an important technique for developing constructs for tissue engineering as well as studying cellular responses under various culture conditions in vitro. The three dimensional environment more closely mimics what the cells observe in vivo due to the application of mechanical and chemical stimuli in all dimensions 1. Three-dimensional hydrogels can either be made from synthetic polymers such as PEG-DA 2 and PLGA 3 or a number of naturally occurring proteins such as collagen 4, hyaluronic acid 5 or fibrin 6,7. Hydrogels created from fibrin, a naturally occurring blood clotting protein, can polymerize to form a mesh that is part of the body's natural wound healing processes 8. Fibrin is cell-degradable and potentially autologous 9, making it an ideal temporary scaffold for tissue engineering.
Here we describe in detail the isolation of neonatal cardiomyocytes from three day old rat pups and the preparation of the cells for encapsulation in fibrin hydrogel constructs for tissue engineering. Neonatal myocytes are a common cell source used for in vitro studies in cardiac tissue formation and engineering 4. Fibrin gel is created by mixing fibrinogen with the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin cleaves fibrinopeptides FpA and FpB from fibrinogen, revealing binding sites that interact with other monomers 10. These interactions cause the monomers to self-assemble into fibers that form the hydrogel mesh. Because the timing of this enzymatic reaction can be adjusted by altering the ratio of thrombin to fibrinogen, or the ratio of calcium to thrombin, one can injection mold constructs with a number of different geometries 11,12. Further we can generate alignment of the resulting tissue by how we constrain the gel during culture 13.
After culturing the engineered cardiac tissue constructs for two weeks under static conditions, the cardiac cells have begun to remodel the construct and can generate a contraction force under electrical pacing conditions 6. As part of this protocol, we also describe methods for analyzing the tissue engineered myocardium after the culture period including functional analysis of the active force generated by the cardiac muscle construct upon electrical stimulation, as well as methods for determining final cell viability (Live-Dead assay) and immunohistological staining to examine the expression and morphology of typical proteins important for contraction (Myosin Heavy Chain or MHC) and cellular coupling (Connexin 43 or Cx43) between myocytes.

We describe the isolation of neonatal cardiomyocytes and the preparation of the cells for encapsulation in fibrin hydrogel constructs for tissue engineering. We describe methods for analyzing the tissue engineered myocardium after the culture period including active force generated upon electrical stimulation and cell viability and immunohistological staining.

Culturing cells in a three dimensional hydrogel environment is an important technique for developing constructs for tissue engineering as well as studying ...

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide1. Cardiac tissue engineering holds much promise to deliver groundbreaking medical discoveries with the aims of developing functional tissues for cardiac regeneration as well as in vitro screening assays. However, the ability to create high-fidelity models of heart tissue has proven difficult. The heart&#8217;s extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex structure consisting of both biochemical and biomechanical signals ranging from the micro- to the nanometer scale2. Local mechanical loading conditions and cell-ECM interactions have recently been recognized as vital components in cardiac tissue engineering3-5.
A large portion of the cardiac ECM is composed of aligned collagen fibers with nano-scale diameters that significantly influences tissue architecture and electromechanical coupling2. Unfortunately, few methods have been able to mimic the organization of ECM fibers down to the nanometer scale. Recent advancements in nanofabrication techniques, however, have enabled the design and fabrication of scalable scaffolds that mimic the in vivo structural and substrate stiffness cues of the ECM in the heart6-9.
Here we present the development of two reproducible, cost-effective, and scalable nanopatterning processes for the functional alignment of cardiac cells using the biocompatible polymer poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)8 and a polyurethane (PU) based polymer. These anisotropically nanofabricated substrata (ANFS) mimic the underlying ECM of well-organized, aligned tissues and can be used to investigate the role of nanotopography on cell morphology and function10-14.
Using a nanopatterned (NP) silicon master as a template, a polyurethane acrylate (PUA) mold is fabricated. This PUA mold is then used to pattern the PU or PLGA hydrogel via UV-assisted or solvent-mediated capillary force lithography (CFL), respectively15,16. Briefly, PU or PLGA pre-polymer is drop dispensed onto a glass coverslip and the PUA mold is placed on top. For UV-assisted CFL, the PU is then exposed to UV radiation (&#955; = 250-400 nm) for curing. For solvent-mediated CFL, the PLGA is embossed using heat (120 &#176;C) and pressure (100 kPa). After curing, the PUA mold is peeled off, leaving behind an ANFS for cell culture. Primary cells, such as neonatal rat ventricular myocytes, as well as human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, can be maintained on the ANFS2.

In this protocol, we demonstrate the fabrication of biomimetic cardiac cell culture substrata made from two distinct polymeric materials using capillary force lithography. The described methods provide a scalable, cost-effective technique to engineer the structure and function of macroscopic cardiac tissues for in vitro and in vivo applications.

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide1. Cardiac tissue engineering holds much promise to deliver groundbreaking medical ...

Tissue Engineering of a Human 3D in vitro Tumor Test System

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Current therapeutic strategies are predominantly developed in 2D culture systems, which inadequately reflect physiological conditions in vivo. Biological 3D matrices provide cells an environment in which cells can self-organize, allowing the study of tissue organization and cell differentiation. Such scaffolds can be seeded with a mixture of different cell types to study direct 3D cell-cell-interactions. To mimic the 3D complexity of cancer tumors, our group has developed a 3D in vitro tumor test system.	
	Our 3D tissue test system models the in vivo situation of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs), which we established with our decellularized porcine jejunal segment derived biological vascularized scaffold (BioVaSc). In our model, we reseeded a modified BioVaSc matrix with primary fibroblasts, microvascular endothelial cells (mvECs) and the S462 tumor cell line. For static culture, the vascular structure of the BioVaSc is removed and the remaining scaffold is cut open on one side (Small Intestinal Submucosa SIS-Muc). The resulting matrix is then fixed between two metal rings (cell crowns).	
	Another option is to culture the cell-seeded SIS-Muc in a flow bioreactor system that exposes the cells to shear stress. Here, the bioreactor is connected to a peristaltic pump in a self-constructed incubator. A computer regulates the arterial oxygen and nutrient supply via parameters such as blood pressure, temperature, and flow rate. This setup allows for a dynamic culture with either pressure-regulated pulsatile or constant flow.	
	In this study, we could successfully establish both a static and dynamic 3D culture system for MPNSTs. The ability to model cancer tumors in a more natural 3D environment will enable the discovery, testing, and validation of future pharmaceuticals in a human-like model.

Tissue Engineering of a Human 3D in vitro Tumor Test System

Methods to create human 3D tumor tissues as test systems are described. These technologies are based on a decellularized Biological Vascularized Scaffold (BioVaSc), primary human cells and a tumor cell line, which can be cultured under static as well as under dynamic conditions in a flow bioreactor.

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide.  Current therapeutic strategies are predominantly developed in 2D culture  systems, which ...

For tissue engineering applications, the preparation of biodegradable and biocompatible scaffolds is the most desirable but challenging task. &#160;Among the various fabrication methods, electrospinning is the most attractive one due to its simplicity and versatility. Additionally, electrospun nanofibers mimic the size of natural extracellular matrix ensuring additional support for cell survival and growth. This study showed the viability of the fabrication of long fibers spanning a larger deposit area for a novel biodegradable and biocompatible polymer named&#160;poly(glycerol-dodecanoate) (PGD)1 by using a newly designed collector for electrospinning. PGD exhibits unique elastic properties with similar mechanical properties to nerve tissues, thus it is suitable for neural tissue engineering applications. The synthesis and fabrication set-up for making fibrous scaffolding materials was simple, highly reproducible, and inexpensive. In biocompatibility testing, cells derived from mouse embryonic stem cells could adhere to and grow on the electrospun PGD fibers. In summary, this protocol provided a versatile fabrication method for making PGD electrospun fibers to support the growth of mouse embryonic stem cell derived neural lineage cells.

Synthesis and fabrication of electrospun long fibers spanning a larger deposit area via a newly designed collector from a novel biodegradable polymer named poly(glycerol-dodecanoate) (PGD) was reported. The fibers were able to support the growth of cells derived from mouse pluripotent stem cells.

For tissue engineering applications, the preparation of biodegradable and biocompatible scaffolds is the most desirable but challenging task. &#160;Among ...

Synthetic materials are known to initiate clinical complications such as inflammation, stenosis, and infections when implanted as vascular substitutes. Collagen has been extensively used for a wide range of biomedical applications and is considered a valid alternative to synthetic materials due to its inherent biocompatibility (i.e., low antigenicity, inflammation, and cytotoxic responses). However, the limited mechanical properties and the related low hand-ability of collagen gels have hampered their use as scaffold materials for vascular tissue engineering. Therefore, the rationale behind this work was first to engineer cellularized collagen gels into a tubular-shaped geometry and second to enhance smooth muscle cells driven reorganization of collagen matrix to obtain tissues stiff enough to be handled.
The strategy described here is based on the direct assembling of collagen and smooth muscle cells (construct) in a 3D cylindrical geometry with the use of a molding technique. This process requires a maturation period, during which the constructs are cultured in a bioreactor under static conditions (without applied external dynamic mechanical constraints) for 1 or 2 weeks. The &#8220;static bioreactor&#8221; provides a monitored and controlled sterile environment (pH, temperature, gas exchange, nutrient supply and waste removal) to the constructs. During culture period, thickness measurements were performed to evaluate the cells-driven remodeling of the collagen matrix, and glucose consumption and lactate production rates were measured to monitor the cells metabolic activity. Finally, mechanical and viscoelastic properties were assessed for the resulting tubular constructs. To this end, specific protocols and a focused know-how (manipulation, gripping, working in hydrated environment, and so on) were developed to characterize the engineered tissues.

In this work, we present a technique for the rapid fabrication of living vascular tissues by direct culturing of collagen, smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. In addition, a new protocol for the mechanical characterization of engineered vascular tissues is described.

Synthetic materials are known to initiate clinical complications such as inflammation, stenosis, and infections when implanted as vascular substitutes. ...

Thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PIPAAm)-immobilized surfaces for controlling cell adhesion and detachment were fabricated by the Langmuir-Schaefer method. Amphiphilic block copolymers composed of polystyrene and PIPAAm (St-IPAAms) were synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) radical polymerization. A chloroform solution of St-IPAAm molecules was gently dropped into a Langmuir-trough apparatus, and both barriers of the apparatus were moved horizontally to compress the film to regulate its density. Then, the St-IPAAm Langmuir film was horizontally transferred onto a hydrophobically modified glass substrate by a surface-fixed device. Atomic force microscopy images clearly revealed nanoscale sea-island structures on the surface. The strength, rate, and quality of cell adhesion and detachment on the prepared surface were modulated by changes in temperature across the lower critical solution temperature range of PIPAAm molecules. In addition, a two-dimensional cell structure (cell sheet) was successfully recovered on the optimized surfaces. These unique PIPAAm surfaces may be useful for controlling the strength of cell adhesion and detachment.

Nanoscaled sea-island surfaces composed of thermoresponsive block copolymers were fabricated by the Langmuir-Schaefer method for controlling spontaneous cell adhesion and detachment. Both the preparation of the surface and the adhesion and detachment of cells on the surface were visualized.

Thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PIPAAm)-immobilized surfaces for controlling cell adhesion and detachment were fabricated by the ...

In reconstructive surgery, there is a clinical need for an alternative to the current methods of autologous reconstruction which are complex, costly and trade one defect for another. Tissue engineering holds the promise to address this increasing demand. However, most tissue engineering strategies fail to generate stable and functional tissue substitutes because of poor vascularization. This paper focuses on an in vivo tissue engineering chamber model of intrinsic vascularization where a perfused artery and a vein either as an arteriovenous loop or a flow-through pedicle configuration is directed inside a protected hollow chamber. In this chamber-based system angiogenic sprouting occurs from the arteriovenous vessels and this system attracts ischemic and inflammatory driven endogenous cell migration which gradually fills the chamber space with fibro-vascular tissue. Exogenous cell/matrix implantation at the time of chamber construction enhances cell survival and determines specificity of the engineered tissues which develop. Our studies have shown that this chamber model can successfully generate different tissues such as fat, cardiac muscle, liver and others. However, modifications and refinements are required to ensure target tissue formation is consistent and reproducible. This article describes a standardized protocol for the fabrication of two different vascularized tissue engineering chamber models in vivo.

This is a guideline for constructing in vivo vascularized tissue using a microsurgical arteriovenous loop or a flow-through pedicle configuration inside a tissue engineering chamber. The vascularized tissues generated can be employed for organ regeneration and replacement of tissue defects, as well as for drug testing and disease modeling.

In reconstructive surgery, there is a clinical need for an alternative to the current methods of autologous reconstruction which are complex, costly and ...

A functional microvascular network is of pivotal importance for the survival and integration of engineered tissue constructs. For this purpose, several angiogenic and prevascularization strategies have been established. However, most cell-based approaches include time-consuming in vitro steps for the formation of a microvascular network. Hence, they are not suitable for intraoperative one-step procedures. Adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments (ad-MVF) represent promising vascularization units. They can be easily isolated from fat tissue and exhibit a functional microvessel morphology. Moreover, they rapidly reassemble into new microvascular networks after in vivo implantation. In addition, ad-MVF have been shown to induce lymphangiogenesis. Finally, they are a rich source of mesenchymal stem cells, which may further contribute to their high vascularization potential. In previous studies we have demonstrated the remarkable vascularization capacity of ad-MVF in engineered bone and skin substitutes. In the present study, we report on a standardized protocol for the enzymatic isolation of ad-MVF from murine fat tissue.

We present a protocol to isolate adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments that represent promising vascularization units. They can be rapidly isolated, do not require in vitro processing and, thus, may be used for one-step prevascularization in different fields of tissue engineering.

A functional microvascular network is of pivotal importance for the survival and integration of engineered tissue constructs. For this purpose, several ...