We thank our colleagues at the Department of Biology, University of Fribourg for fruitful discussions. We thank the Bloomington Stock Center for providing fly stocks. This work was financially supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (PP00P3_123339) and the Velux Foundation to S.G.S.

1. Larval Rearing
<ol>
 <li>Keep fly strains or genetic crosses in mass culture at 25 &deg;C on corn meal medium under a 12-hr light-12-hr dark cycle in a fly incubator equipped with light and timer.</li>
 <li>Dilute backer yeast in water to form a fluid paste (10 g of backer yeast diluted with 3-4 ml distilled H2O). Add a small drop to the corn meal food and cover the vials. Let dry for at least one hour to avoid adult flies sticking to the yeast paste. Putting a small drop of yeast diluted in water on the surface of the food can enhance oviposition. Alternatively baker yeast paste, 20% acetic acid (AcOH) (Sigma Aldrich, Switzerland A6283-100ML) can be used. For this, dip the tip of a Q-tip on the solution and spread on the corn meal food surface. </li>
 <li>Put adult flies (at least four days old, but not older than ten days) in corn meal food vials. Put enough adults into each vial in order to obtain sufficient larvae to repeat the preference test several times and allow statistical comparison. For genetic crosses, we typically use a minimum of 20 females and 5-10 males per vial, but some lines require more females to obtain a sufficient larval offspring.</li>
 <li>Allow adults to lay eggs for 12 hr and transfer them to new vials. Adults can be transferred in the morning and the evening. We usually transfer adults for seven to ten days and if required take new adults. </li>
 <li>Keep the egg collections taken every 12 hr in the incubator and let grow the larvae at 25 &deg;C, 12-hr light-12-hr dark cycle and 60% humidity. To test for circadian components of visual behavior move larvae to constant darkness (DD) 48 hr after egg collection (corresponding to two-light-dark cycles). For this, use a separate incubator without light but keep all other conditions such as temperature and humidity identical. Be sure to transfer the vials to the DD incubator just before the switch to the dark phase. Before moving the vials to another incubator put vials in a cardboard box or wrap the vials with aluminum foil to prevent light exposure during the transfer (packing in cardboard box or wrapping has to be done during the "lights-on phase" prior to the shift between incubators). Prevent the animals from any light exposure after this point and until experiments start.</li>
 <li>After 4 days (84 to 108 hr from egg laying) collect early L3 (feeding larvae) at the time points to be tested (see 4. Light preference test, point. 4.4.). </li>
</ol>
2. Test Setup
<ol>
 <li>Perform experiments in a dark room with constant temperature and humidity conditions. </li>
 <li>To keep two quadrants of the Petri dish in darkness, cover the lid with black tape and aluminum foil. In order to do so, mark the center of the lid circumference. Also mark four points in the border of the lid with 90 &deg; of separation among them. To make it easier, draw a 20 cm square divided in four quadrants of 10 cm length on a sheet of paper or with help of a computer. Cut 10 cm squares of aluminum foil and black tape (Figure 1A). Cover two opposite quadrants by gluing a square of aluminum foil, as first layer and black tape covering it, be careful to also cover the border of the lid. 
 In the past two slightly distinct forms of this assays were used. We here use the "quarter-plate" assay, in which the Petri dish is divided in four equal quarters10. In the alternative "half-plate" assay the Petri dish is divided half (half exposed to light, half in darkness)1,7,8. Until today no significant differences between the two assays has been published.</li>
 <li>Glue a quadrant sheet such as the one used for marking the lids right under the light source on the table. Mark the circumference of a Petri dish centered on the quadrants intersection. Use the marks as reference to place the test plate always in the same position under the light source. </li>
 <li>Install a lamp, either a simple white light bulb (Phillips, Softtone 5W) or a LED lamp (LED lamp, 80012 White, Osram) above the Petri dish with the help of an iron support stand (Fisher Scientific, S47808). Adjust the height in a way that the whole test plate is homogenously illuminated. We strongly recommend the use of LED lamps since they emit more specific wavelengths than conventional light bulbs. Moreover LEDs emit less heat. </li>
 <li>Adjust light intensity with the help of a photometer (Environment Meter PCE EM882). To achieve the required light intensity of 350-760 lux, move the lamp up or down as required. Plugging the lamp to an adjustable power supply gives more flexibility to change intensities without moving the lamp (Figure 1B). </li>
</ol>
3. Plates Preparation 
<ol>
 <li>Make 200 ml of 2.5 % agar (Sigma-Aldrich, Switzerland A5093-500G) with double distilled water (Millipore). </li>
 <li>Place Petri dishes on a table (90-mm diameter; Greiner Bio-One GmbH, 4550 Kremsmeinster, Austria) in rows to allow pouring hot agarose. </li>
 <li>Boil the agarose in a microwave until the solution is completely transparent and fluid. Make sure that liquid solution does not contain bubbles. CAUTION: Transport carefully to the table since the solution can be very hot! </li>
 <li>Pour hot agarose into the Petri dishes until the whole surface is homogenously covered with a thin layer of the solution, about two or three millimeters are enough. Be quick to prevent agarose solidifying before coating all plates. Let the plates cool down. Store plates at room temperature and use them only on the same day of preparation. </li>
</ol>
4. Light Preference Test 
<ol>
 <li>Work under red light conditions in the experiment room to prevent light influence before the test since Drosophila is not able to sense red wavelengths of light. Use a red light bulb (Phillips, PFE712E*8) mounted in a lamp to illuminate the place to work.</li>
 <li>Maintain temperature through all experiments at 25 &deg;C. Control room temperature by means of a heater or cooling device if required.</li>
 <li>Take some food from the vials reared for two-day cycles under constant darkness (from section 1). Since larvae are usually digging on the surface of the food, take the uppermost layer (about 5 mm deep) with help of a spatula (Fisher Scientific, 14-373-25A). Spread the food on the outer side of a Petri dish lid, add some water and mix gently with the spatula. </li>
 <li>Collect feeding L3 larvae from the food. As light preference will be tested, choosing only early/feeding L3 larvae is crucial since the negative phototaxis is assured. Late/wandering L3 larvae or big larva crawling on the food presumably already switched their photobehavior. Feeding L3 larvae (negative phototactic) can be recognized because their anterior spiracles are open and protruded to the outside in a finger-like form. The posterior spiracles have three openings each, and four groups of large branched hairs. The salivary glands extend to the second abdominal segment11. Staging larva under a microscope is convenient whereas no white light should be used. A red light lamp is necessary to illuminate the larvae if staging under stereoscopic microscope before experiments is required.</li>
 <li>Wash larvae briefly in tap water and collect early-feeding third-instar larvae (still in red light). Before transferring the larvae to the test plate, take the larvae with a wet paintbrush and carefully absorb excess water with a paper towel or filter paper. Do not dry larvae too excessively since it could harm the animal and influence its behavior.</li>
 <li>Using the wet paintbrush carefully transfer the larvae to plates. Place a group of approximately 30 larvae in the center of the plate. Cover the plate with the lid already prepared with the quadrants and set the plate under the light source ready for experiment (see section 2). </li>
 <li>Turn on the white light lamp and start the timer. Let the larva move freely on the plate for 5 min, then quickly remove the lid and count the number of larvae in the dark and in the light quadrants. Marking the position of each larva with a marker can ease the counting. Alternatively take a picture of the plate and count a posteriori. Larvae showing unclear light preference, like larvae crawling on the walls or burrowing into agar should be considered as neutral preference and just be included in the total number of larvae when the light preference index is calculated. </li>
 <li>After counting, discard the plate with larvae and replace with a new test plate for the next experiment. Collect used plates in an autoclave plastic bag for later handling and disposal.</li>
 <li>Once you have performed a sufficient number of experiments a new genotype can be tested. 10-15 trials per genotype are sufficient for analysis. </li>
</ol>
5. Data Analysis 
<ol>
 <li>For convenience transfer the data to a datasheet as Excel (Microsoft) or Origin (Origin Lab) on a computer for further statistical analysis. Arrange in one column the number of animals in darkness, in a second column the number of animals in light quadrants and in the third the total of animals in the plate (including "neutral" larvae).</li>
 <li>Calculate the preference index (PREF) for the darkness for each experiment using the following formula: 
 PREF(darkness) = (number of larvae in dark - number of larvae in light)/total number of larvae </li>
 <li>Compare statistically a set of data with an appropriate analysis for groups. Here, we use a Wilcoxon test to compare statistically two groups. An ANOVA test with a Tukey's multiple-comparison post hoc test can be done, if normal distribution assumption is fulfilled in a manifold group comparison. </li>
 <li>Make graphs that show clearly comparisons among lines and time points along the day cycle. We use Origin Software (Origin Lab) to test statistical significance and generate appropriate graphs, but any other statistical software can be helpful.</li>
</ol>

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G., Desplan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switch+of+rhodopsin+expression+in+terminally+differentiated+Drosophila+sensory+neurons.">Switch of rhodopsin expression in terminally differentiated Drosophila sensory neurons.</a> Nature. 454, 533-537 (2008).</li><li>Xiang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-avoidance-mediating+photoreceptors+tile+the+Drosophila+larval+body+wall.">Light-avoidance-mediating photoreceptors tile the Drosophila larval body wall.</a> Nature. 468, 921-926 (2010).</li><li>Diaz, N. N., Sprecher, S. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The light preference test described takes advantage of the larval innate photobehavior. The assay is easy to establish, allows many repetitions at low cost and delivers valuable information about light sensing and processing. The experimental paradigm allows relatively quick quantification of how many individuals prefer light or dark. Such preference can be displayed as crude percentages or alternatively as Preference Index (PREF). The PREF is expressed as the difference of animals that preferred light and animals that p...

Here we describe a behavioral assay based on the larval preference for dark (or light). Larvae react with a strong and stereotypic photonegative response during foraging stages (L1 to early L3)1. The assay is aimed to assess the photophobic behavior of the larva and compares the light or dark preference of a group of larvae moving freely in a Petri dish coated with agar. This behavioral assay not only provides information about the sensitivity, integration and temporal plasticity of the visual system, it further provides hints on how light sensitivity and its process is controlled by the circadian system.
The Drosophila larval eye (also termed Bowlig Organ; BO), is the main organ for light perception. Each eye is composed of 12 photoreceptors (PR), eight PRs express the green-sensitive rhodopsin6 (rh6) and four PRs express the blue-sensitive rhodopsin5 (rh5)2,3. In addition to PRs, also class IV multidendritic neurons, which cover the larval body wall, have been identified to respond to noxious light intensities4,5. It is also known that pacemaker neurons situated in the central larval brain express the light sensitive protein Cryptochrome (Cry) that acts as clock intrinsic blue light sensor within the brain6,7. Intriguingly photophobicity of wild type animals shows a circadian component at different time points during the course of day and night when testing with this assay. Responses to light of foraging L3 larva showed stronger photophobicity at dawn and lower photophobicity at dusk when tested for light-dark preference7. Interestingly only Rh5-PRs are required for light avoidance, while Rh6-PRs are dispensable. Both, Rh5-PRs and Rh6-PRs are involved in resetting the molecular clock by light8. The Cry pathway must be coordinated with the other light-sensing pathways to orchestrate an appropriate behavioral output in the course of the day. Acetylcholine in PRs plays an essential role in light avoidance behavior as well as entrainment of the molecular clock. Blocking acetylcholine neurotransmission from PRs to circadian pacemaker neurons reduces the photophobic response in the light-darkness preference assay8. Employing the same assay, two symmetrical pairs of neurons have been recently identified to switch the light preference of the third larval instar of Drosophila9. These two pairs of neurons may be functioning during late larval stages, when animals leave the food to presumably find an appropriate pupariation site. However, the question of how the visual pathways interact and control larval visual behavior in a circadian manner remains largely unanswered. The light preference assay allows comparisons among circadian time points, fly lines and circadian state under different light qualities. The assay is easily prepared and inexpensive and has been useful previously in several labs to describe and study light derived behavior in the larva.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalog Number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Agar</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A5093-500G</td>
 <td>2.5%; Sigma-Aldrich, 9471 Buchs, Switzerland </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Petri dishes</td>
 <td>Greiner Bio-One GmbH</td>
 <td>633180</td>
 <td>90-mm diameter; Greiner Bio-One GmbH, 4550 Kremsmeinster, Austria</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>LEDs Lamp</td>
 <td>OSARAM </td>
 <td>80012 White</td>
 <td>LED lamp, 80012 White</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Environment Meter</td>
 <td>PCE</td>
 <td>PCE EM882</td>
 <td>Lux, Temp, RH%</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Thermostatic cabinet</td>
 <td>Aqua Lytic (Liebherr)</td>
 <td>ET636-6</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Light timer</td>
 <td>Timer T</td>
 <td>6185.104</td>
 <td>230V/50HZ (check specifications for your country)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Universal thermostat</td>
 <td>Conrad</td>
 <td>UT200</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Humidifier</td>
 <td>Boneco</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Balck tape</td>
 <td>Tesa</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>5 cm </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Glue</td>
 <td>Uhu</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>lncubator lamp</td>
 <td>Phillips</td>
 <td>Softtone</td>
 <td>5W</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Timer clock</td>
 <td>Ziliss</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Ziliss, Switzerland</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Excel Software</td>
 <td>Microsoft</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Excel</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Origin Software 8.5</td>
 <td>OriginLab</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Backer Yeast</td>
 <td>Migros Switzerland</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Iron support stand 17X28CM</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>S47808</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Acetic acid</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>A6283-100ML</td>
 <td>20% acetic acid dilluted in H2O</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Red light lamp</td>
 <td>Phillips</td>
 <td>PFE712E*8C</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Spatula </td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>14-373-25A</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Power supply</td>
 <td>EA</td>
 <td>EA PS 2042-06B</td>
 <td>Optional</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Aluminium foil</td>
 <td>Prix Coop</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Heater</td>
 <td>GOON</td>
 <td>NSB200C</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Microwave Oven</td>
 <td>Intertronic</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Standard corn meal fly food</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Destilled water </td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

light preference assay to study innate and circadian regulated photobehavior in drosophila larvae

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer basic questions on how light information is processed and shared between rapid and circadian behaviors. Drosophila larvae display a stereotypical avoidance behavior when exposed to light. To investigate light dependent behaviors comparably simple light-dark preference tests can be applied. In vertebrates and arthropods the neural pathways involved in sensing and processing visual inputs partially overlap with those processing photic circadian information. The fascinating question of how the light sensing system and the circadian system interact to keep behavioral outputs coordinated remains largely unexplored. Drosophila is an impacting biological model to approach these questions, due to a small number of neurons in the brain and the availability of genetic tools for neuronal manipulation. The presented light-dark preference assay allows the investigation of a range of visual behaviors including circadian control of phototaxis.

Following the protocol described above, we tested light-dark preference in early third larval stadium of wild type Canton-S flies at two different circadian times CT0 and CT12. Adults were reared 12-hr light-12-hr dark and left to lay eggs for 12 hr. Larvae grow the first two days under the same light-dark regime. Since we wanted to test circadian modulation under constant conditions (free running of the circadian clock), larvae were then transferred to constant darkness for the next three days until test was performed ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae at JoVE.com

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Here we describe a light-dark preference test for Drosophila larva. This assay provides information about innate and circadian regulation of light sensing and processing photobehavior.

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer ...

light-preference-assay-to-study-innate-circadian-regulated

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12.8K Views.  University of Fribourg. Here we describe a light-dark preference test for Drosophila larva. This assay provides information about innate and circadian regulation of light sensing and processing photobehavior.

Video: Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Laser Capture Microdissection of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons

The dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral nervous system (PNS) provide an excellent model system in which to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying class-specific dendrite morphogenesis1,2. To facilitate molecular analyses of class-specific da neuron development, it is vital to obtain these cells in a pure population. Although a range of different cell, and tissue-specific RNA isolation techniques exist for Drosophila cells, including magnetic bead based cell purification3,4, Fluorescent Activated Cell Sorting (FACS)5-8, and RNA binding protein based strategies9, none of these methods can be readily utilized for isolating single or multiple class-specific Drosophila da neurons with a high degree of spatial precision. Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM) has emerged as an extremely powerful tool that can be used to isolate specific cell types from tissue sections with a high degree of spatial resolution and accuracy. RNA obtained from isolated cells can then be used for analyses including qRT-PCR and microarray expression profiling within a given cell type10-16. To date, LCM has not been widely applied in the analysis of Drosophila tissues and cells17,18, including da neurons at the third instar larval stage of development. 
Here we present our optimized protocol for isolation of Drosophila da neurons using the infrared (IR) class of LCM. This method allows for the capture of single, class-specific or multiple da neurons with high specificity and spatial resolution. Age-matched third instar larvae expressing a UAS-mCD8::GFP19 transgene under the control of either the class IV da neuron specific ppk-GAL420 driver or the pan-da neuron specific 21-7-GAL421 driver were used for these experiments. RNA obtained from the isolated da neurons is of very high quality and can be directly used for downstream applications, including qRT-PCR or microarray analyses. Furthermore, this LCM protocol can be readily adapted to capture other Drosophila cell types a various stages of development dependent upon the cell type specific, GAL4-driven expression pattern of GFP.

Laser Capture Microdissection of Drosophila Peripheral Neurons

In this video-article we present a method for isolating single or multiple Drosophila da neurons from third instar larvae using the infrared capture (IR) class of Laser Capture Microdissection (LCM). RNA obtained from the isolated neurons can be readily used for downstream applications including qRT-PCR or microarray analyses.

The dendritic arborization (da) neurons of the Drosophila peripheral nervous system (PNS) provide an excellent model system in which to investigate the ...

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila. These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila. Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties.

Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila

We describe procedures for recording daily locomotor activity rhythms of Drosophila and subsequent data analysis. Locomotor activity rhythms are a reliable behavioral output of animal circadian clocks and are used as the standard readout of clock function when studying circadian mutants or examining how the environment regulates the circadian system.

Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (&equiv;24 hr) ...

Measuring Circadian and Acute Light Responses in Mice using Wheel Running Activity

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2. They are responsible for timing our sleep/wake cycles and hormone secretion. Since this timing is not precisely 24-hours, it is synchronized to the solar day by light input. This is accomplished via photic input from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which serves as the master pacemaker synchronizing peripheral clocks in other regions of the brain and peripheral tissues to the environmental light dark cycle3-7. The alignment of rhythms to this environmental light dark cycle organizes particular physiological events to the correct temporal niche, which is crucial for survival8. For example, mice sleep during the day and are active at night. This ability to consolidate activity to either the light or dark portion of the day is referred to as circadian photoentrainment and requires light input to the circadian clock9. Activity of mice at night is robust particularly in the presence of a running wheel. Measuring this behavior is a minimally invasive method that can be used to evaluate the functionality of the circadian system as well as light input to this system. Methods that will covered here are used to examine the circadian clock, light input to this system, as well as the direct influence of light on wheel running behavior.

This article will review methods that can be used to determine circadian function and light responsiveness in mice.

Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2.  They ...

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and various neurological diseases1. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining larval locomotion, adult climbing ability (RING assay), and courtship behaviors of Drosophila. These behavioral assays are widely applicable for studying the role of genetic and environmental factors on fly behavior. Larval crawling ability can be reliably used for determining early stage changes in the crawling abilities of Drosophila larvae and also for examining effect of drugs or human disease genes (in transgenic flies) on their locomotion. The larval crawling assay becomes more applicable if expression or abolition of a gene causes lethality in pupal or adult stages, as these flies do not survive to adulthood where they otherwise could be assessed. This basic assay can also be used in conjunction with bright light or stress to examine additional behavioral responses in Drosophila larvae. Courtship behavior has been widely used to investigate genetic basis of sexual behavior, and can also be used to examine activity and coordination, as well as learning and memory. Drosophila courtship behavior involves the exchange of various sensory stimuli including visual, auditory, and chemosensory signals between males and females that lead to a complex series of well characterized motor behaviors culminating in successful copulation. Traditional adult climbing assays (negative geotaxis) are tedious, labor intensive, and time consuming, with significant variation between different trials2-4. The rapid iterative negative geotaxis (RING) assay5 has many advantages over more widely employed protocols, providing a reproducible, sensitive, and high throughput approach to quantify adult locomotor and negative geotaxis behaviors. In the RING assay, several genotypes or drug treatments can be tested simultaneously using large number of animals, with the high-throughput approach making it more amenable for screening experiments.

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster is a genetically and behaviorally tractable model system that has been used to understand the molecular and cellular basis of many important biological processes for over a century 1. Drosophila has been well exploited to gain insights into the genetic basis of fly behavior.

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular ...

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.
The Drosophila larva is an established model system to study thermal nociception, a sensory response to potentially harmful temperatures that is evolutionarily conserved across species1,2. The advantages of Drosophila for such studies are the relative simplicity of its nervous system and the sophistication of the genetic techniques that can be used to dissect the molecular basis of the underlying biology4-6 In Drosophila, as in all metazoans, the response to noxious thermal stimuli generally involves a "nocifensive" aversive withdrawal to the presented stimulus7. Such stimuli are detected through free nerve endings or nociceptors and the amplitude of the organismal response depends on the number of nociceptors receiving the noxious stimulus8. In Drosophila, it is the class IV dendritic arborization sensory neurons that detect noxious thermal and mechanical stimuli9 in addition to their recently discovered role as photoreceptors10. These neurons, which have been very well studied at the developmental level, arborize over the barrier epidermal sheet and make contacts with nearly all epidermal cells11,12. The single axon of each class IV neuron projects into the ventral nerve cord of the central nervous system11 where they may connect to second-order neurons that project to the brain.
Under baseline conditions, nociceptive sensory neurons will not fire until a relatively high threshold is reached. The assays described here allow the investigator to quantify baseline behavioral responses or, presumably, the sensitization that ensues following tissue damage. Each assay provokes distinct but related locomotory behavioral responses to noxious thermal stimuli and permits the researcher to visualize and quantify various aspects of thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. The assays can be applied to larvae of desired genotypes or to larvae raised under different environmental conditions that might impact nociception. Since thermal nociception is conserved across species, the findings gleaned from genetic dissection in Drosophila will likely inform our understanding of thermal nociception in other species, including vertebrates.

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

Recording and Analysis of Circadian Rhythms in Running-wheel Activity in Rodents

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, including rats, hamsters, and mice, are active during the night and relatively inactive during the day. Many other behavioral and physiological measures also exhibit daily rhythms, but in rodents, running-wheel activity serves as a particularly reliable and convenient measure of the output of the master circadian clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. In general, through a process called entrainment, the daily pattern of running-wheel activity will naturally align with the environmental light-dark cycle (LD cycle; e.g. 12 hr-light:12 hr-dark). However circadian rhythms are endogenously generated patterns in behavior that exhibit a ~24 hr period, and persist in constant darkness. Thus, in the absence of an LD cycle, the recording and analysis of running-wheel activity can be used to determine the subjective time-of-day. Because these rhythms are directed by the circadian clock the subjective time-of-day is referred to as the circadian time (CT). In contrast, when an LD cycle is present, the time-of-day that is determined by the environmental LD cycle is called the zeitgeber time (ZT).
Although circadian rhythms in running-wheel activity are typically linked to the SCN clock6-8, circadian oscillators in many other regions of the brain and body9-14 could also be involved in the regulation of daily activity rhythms. For instance, daily rhythms in food-anticipatory activity do not require the SCN15,16 and instead, are correlated with changes in the activity of extra-SCN oscillators17-20. Thus, running-wheel activity recordings can provide important behavioral information not only about the output of the master SCN clock, but also on the activity of extra-SCN oscillators. Below we describe the equipment and methods used to record, analyze and display circadian locomotor activity rhythms in laboratory rodents.

Circadian rhythms in voluntary wheel-running activity in mammals are tightly coupled to the molecular oscillations of a master clock in the brain. As such, these daily rhythms in behavior can be used to study the influence of genetic, pharmacological, and environmental factors on the functioning of this circadian clock.

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, ...

Taste Preference Assay for Adult Drosophila

Olfactory and gustatory perception of the environment is vital for animal survival. The most obvious application of these chemosenses is to be able to distinguish good food sources from potentially dangerous food sources. Gustation requires physical contact with a chemical compound which is able to signal through taste receptors that are expressed on the surface of neurons. In insects, these gustatory neurons can be located across the animal's body allowing taste to play an important role in many different behaviors. Insects typically prefer compounds containing sugars, while compounds that are considered bitter tasting are avoided. Given the basic biological importance of taste, there is intense interest in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying this sensory modality. We describe an adult Drosophila taste assay which reflects the preference of the animals for a given tastant compound. This assay may be applied to animals of any genetic background to examine the taste preference for a desired soluble compound.

Taste Preference Assay for Adult Drosophila

Taste is an important sensory process which facilitates attraction to beneficial substances and avoidance of toxic substances. This protocol describes a simple ingestion assay for determining Drosophila gustatory preference for a given chemical compound.

Olfactory and gustatory perception of the environment is vital for animal survival.  The most obvious application of these chemosenses is to be able to ...

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory machinery, such as in patients experiencing peripheral neuropathy or injury-induced sensitization, are not well characterized. The genetically tractable Drosophila model has been used to study the cells and genes required for noxious heat detection, which has yielded multiple conserved genes of interest. Little is known however about the cells and receptors important for noxious cold sensing. Although, Drosophila does not survive prolonged exposure to cold temperatures (&#8804;10 &#186;C), and will avoid cool, preferring warmer temperatures in behavioral preference assays, how they sense and possibly avoid noxious cold stimuli has only recently been investigated.
Here we describe and characterize the first noxious cold (&#8804;10 &#186;C) behavioral assay in Drosophila. Using this tool and assay, we show an investigator how to qualitatively and quantitatively assess cold nociceptive behaviors. This can be done under normal/healthy culture conditions, or presumably in the context of disease, injury or sensitization. Further, this assay can be applied to larvae selected for desired genotypes, which might impact thermosensation, pain, or nociceptive sensitization. Given that pain is a highly conserved process, using this assay to further study&#160;thermal nociception will likely glean important understanding of pain processes in other species, including vertebrates.

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Here we demonstrate a novel assay to study cold nociception in Drosophila larvae. This assay utilizes a custom-built Peltier probe capable of applying a focal noxious cold stimulus and results in quantifiable cold-specific behaviors. This technique will allow further cellular and molecular dissection of cold nociception.

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory ...