This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R01DK080971 and Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation grant 37-2009-44. We also appreciate support received from the UCSD Pediatric Diabetes Research Center (PDRC).

1. Transfection of HEK293 Layer
<ol>
	<li>Prepare HEK293 cell medium by adding to 500 ml bottles of DMEM (with 4.5 g/ml glucose and phenol red and without glutamine): 50 ml FBS, 5 ml 100X penicillin/streptomycin solution, 5 ml 100x L-glutamine solution and 500 &mu;l amphotericin B.</li>
	<li>Plate out HEK293 cells in a 24-well plate using 0.5 ml of HEK293 media per well. Ensure that the cells are spread evenly across the bottom of the plate.</li>
	<li>When HEK293 cells reach 100% confluency, transfect with 0.8 &mu;g of plasmid coding the protein of interest (inserted in a mammalian expression vector) and 2 &mu;l of Lipofectamine 2000 according to the Lipofectamine protocol. We have opted to use the pcDNA 3.3 backbone designed for expression in mammalian cells.</li>
	<li>Optionally, after 6 hr of incubation, exchange the transfection media described in the Lipofectamine protocol with normal HEK293 media.</li>
	<li>To evaluate expression of the transfected protein, a subset of the transfected tissue culture wells can be used for immunofluorescent detection of the expressed protein or for western blot analysis of protein expression using standard techniques.</li>
</ol>
2. Optional Fixation of HEK293 Cells Expressing Transfected Protein
Transfected HEK293 cells can be gently fixed in order to facilitate coculture in media that might be harmful to living HEK293 cells (e.g. step 3.9 below) or to allow the efficient preparation in advance of plates for several experiments all at once (see also Discussion).
<ol>
	<li>Conduct pilot studies to determine the time course of the expression of the protein in the HEK293 cells.</li>
	<li>After transfecting the HEK293 cell layer, aspirate the media from the cells at the post-transfection time point associated with highest level of expression. If this occurs within the first 24 hr, do not aspirate until 24 hr after transfection.</li>
	<li>Wash HEK293 cells gently with D-PBS then add 500 &mu;l 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) and incubate at RT for 30 min. (To make 4% PFA solution, start with 16% solution in 1X PBS and dilute 1:4 with 1X PBS.)</li>
	<li>Using sterile PBS, gently wash the cells 3 times and incubate in PBS O/N at 4 &deg;C.</li>
	<li>Wash cells 3 times with sterile PBS, then add PBS and leave at 4 &deg;C until needed (maximum storage time may vary depending on protein expressed. We store HEK293 cells transfected to express neuroligin isoforms for up to 2 weeks without significant changes in observed effects on insulin secretion).</li>
</ol>
3. Co-culturing of INS-1 Beta Cells with HEK293 Cells
<ol>
	<li>Prepare INS-1 media by adding to 500 ml RPMI 1640 (with glucose and phenol red and without glutamine): 50 ml FBS, 5 ml 100X penicillin/streptomycin, 5 ml 100X L-glutamine solution, 5 ml sodium pyruvate, 500 &mu;l amphotericin B, 500 &mu;l beta-mercaptoethanol (this is nearly identical to the medium typically used for primary islet culture except for the addition of beta-mercaptoethanol).</li>
	<li>Using Cell-stripper (or another non-enzymatic cell remover), harvest INS-1 cells at approximately 70-80% confluency off the bottom of a T75 culture flask. Each flask will provide roughly enough cells for 48 wells.</li>
	<li>After spinning down cells in the centrifuge for 3 min at 1,200 rpm, resuspend in a 50/50 mix of INS-1 and HEK media. For a 70-80% confluent flask of INS-1 cells, resuspend in approximately 25 ml of mixed media.</li>
	<li>If using HEK293 cells that have been fixed in paraformaldehyde rather than live HEK293 cells, resuspend the INS-1 cells in 100% INS-1 media rather than mixed media.</li>
	<li>Using a 10 ml pipette, dislodge the cells from the pellet to make a homogenous cell suspension.</li>
	<li>Aspirate to remove the media on the HEK293 cells.</li>
	<li>Using a p1000 pipette, gently add 500 &mu;l of INS-1 cell suspension onto the HEK cell layer along the sides of the well. After every 6 wells, use a 10 ml pipette to resuspend the INS-1 cells again to ensure a homogenous cell suspension. The overall scheme of the coculture set-up is depicted in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Incubate the cells for 24-48 hr depending on the experimental protocol.</li>
	<li>If more than 48 hr coculture period is required, use optional steps in section 2 above to fix the HEK293 cells.</li>
	<li>If using primary dissociated rodent or human islets [e.g. see prior protocols in JoVE11-15], ensure that an appropriate media such as RPMI with 5 ml pen/strep, 5 ml L-Glut, 0.5 ml amphotericin-B is used instead of INS-1 media. Although one can use dissociated islet cells in a 24 well plate, in practice because of the large number of islets potentially needed, it is recommended that consideration be given to scaling down to a 48 well plate (necessitating fewer islet cells per well). On a 48 well plate, add approximately 100 islets worth of dissociated cells per plate to start. Depending on the efficacy of dissociation and the method used, fewer islets may be required.</li>
</ol>
4. Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion
<ol>
	<li>Preincubate cells in 250 &mu;l of 2.5 mM glucose in KRB (Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate buffer) for a minimum of 1 hr. To preincubate, remove coculture medium and immediately replace with KRB. This exchange should be done one well at a time to minimize exposure of INS-1 cells to environmental oxygen. Aspirate with one hand while pipetting the low (2.5 mM) glucose KRB with the other.</li>
	<li>Exchange preincubation KRB to 250 &mu;l of either 2.5 mM or 20 mM glucose in KRB buffer one well at a time.</li>
	<li>If appropriate for the specific experiment, additional secretagogues such as 100 &mu;M IBMX may be added to produce a more robust stimulated insulin secretory response. Dissociated primary islet beta cells in particular are poorly responsive to increased glucose concentrations alone, so here especially addition of IBMX or other secretagogues should be considered16,17 .</li>
	<li>After 1 hr of incubation, transfer media to microfuge tubes and spin 1,500 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Remove 200 &mu;l of the supernatant and use this for analysis by insulin RIA or ELISA.</li>
	<li>To prepare cell lysate, add 100 &mu;l of RIPA cell lysis buffer (150 mM NaCl, 1.0% IGEPALCA-630 or Nonidet P-40, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 50 mM Tris, pH 8.0) with protease inhibitors to the plate immediately after removing media and incubate at 4 &deg;C for 20 min.</li>
	<li>Spin down lysate for 15 min at 10,000 x g and remove 50 &mu;l of supernatant for analysis by insulin RIA or ELISA.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Kelly, C., McClenaghan, N. H., Flatt, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+islet+structure+and+cellular+interactions+in+the+control+of+insulin+secretion.">Role of islet structure and cellular interactions in the control of insulin secretion.</a> Islets. 3, 41-47 (2011).</li><li>Konstantinova, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EphA-Ephrin-A-mediated+beta+cell+communication+regulates+insulin+secretion+from+pancreatic+islets.">EphA-Ephrin-A-mediated beta cell communication regulates insulin secretion from pancreatic islets.</a> Cell. 129, 359-370 (2007).</li><li>Jain, R., Lammert, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-cell+interactions+in+the+endocrine+pancreas.">Cell-cell interactions in the endocrine pancreas.</a> Diabetes Obes. Metab. 11, 159-167 (2009).</li><li>Poitout, V., Olson, L. K., Robertson, R. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insulin-secreting+cell+lines:+classification,+characteristics+and+potential+applications.">Insulin-secreting cell lines: classification, characteristics and potential applications.</a> Diabetes Metab. 22, 7-14 (1996).</li><li>Craig, A. M., Graf, E. R., Linhoff, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+to+build+a+central+synapse:+clues+from+cell+culture.">How to build a central synapse: clues from cell culture.</a> Trends in Neurosciences. 29, 8-20 (2006).</li><li>Scheiffele, P., Fan, J., Choih, J., Fetter, R., Serafini, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroligin+expressed+in+nonneuronal+cells+triggers+presynaptic+development+in+contacting+axons.">Neuroligin expressed in nonneuronal cells triggers presynaptic development in contacting axons.</a> Cell. 101, 657-669 (2000).</li><li>Abderrahmani, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+traits+are+required+for+glucose-induced+insulin+secretion.">Neuronal traits are required for glucose-induced insulin secretion.</a> FEBS Lett. 565, 133-138 (2004).</li><li>Lowe, A. W., Madeddu, L., Kelly, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endocrine+secretory+granules+and+neuronal+synaptic+vesicles+have+three+integral+membrane+proteins+in+common.">Endocrine secretory granules and neuronal synaptic vesicles have three integral membrane proteins in common.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. 106, 51-59 (1988).</li><li>Suckow, A. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+neurexin,+neuroligin,+and+their+cytoplasmic+binding+partners+in+the+pancreatic+beta-cells+and+the+involvement+of+neuroligin+in+insulin+secretion.">Expression of neurexin, neuroligin, and their cytoplasmic binding partners in the pancreatic beta-cells and the involvement of neuroligin in insulin secretion.</a> Endocrinology. 149, 6006-6017 (2008).</li><li>Suckow, A. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcellular+neuroligin-2+interactions+enhance+insulin+secretion+and+are+integral+to+pancreatic+beta+cell+function.">Transcellular neuroligin-2 interactions enhance insulin secretion and are integral to pancreatic beta cell function.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 287, 19816-19826 (2012).</li><li>Kohnert, K. D., Hehmke, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+suspensions+of+pancreatic+islet+cells:+a+comparison+of+methods.">Preparation of suspensions of pancreatic islet cells: a comparison of methods.</a> J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods. 12, 81-88 (1986).</li><li>Qi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+pancreatic+islet+isolation:+Part+I:+digestion+and+collection+of+pancreatic+tissue.">Human pancreatic islet isolation: Part I: digestion and collection of pancreatic tissue.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (27), e1125 (2009).</li><li>Qi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+pancreatic+islet+isolation:+Part+II:+purification+and+culture+of+human+islets.">Human pancreatic islet isolation: Part II: purification and culture of human islets.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (27), e1343 (2009).</li><li>Szot, G. L., Koudria, P., Bluestone, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Murine+pancreatic+islet+isolation.">Murine pancreatic islet isolation.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (7), e255 (2007).</li><li>Zmuda, E. J., Powell, C. A., Hai, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+murine+islet+isolation+and+subcapsular+kidney+transplantation.">A method for murine islet isolation and subcapsular kidney transplantation.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (50), e2096 (2011).</li><li>Hauge-Evans, A. C., Squires, P. E., Persaud, S. J., Jones, P. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pancreatic+beta-cell-to-beta-cell+interactions+are+required+for+integrated+responses+to+nutrient+stimuli:+enhanced+Ca2++and+insulin+secretory+responses+of+MIN6+pseudoislets.">Pancreatic beta-cell-to-beta-cell interactions are required for integrated responses to nutrient stimuli: enhanced Ca2+ and insulin secretory responses of MIN6 pseudoislets.</a> Diabetes. 48, 1402-1408 (1999).</li><li>Spiess, Y., Smith, M. A., Vale, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Superfusion+of+dissociated+pancreatic+islet+cells+attached+to+Cytodex+beads.">Superfusion of dissociated pancreatic islet cells attached to Cytodex beads.</a> Diabetes. 31, 189-193 (1982).</li><li>Pham, P. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+gene+expression+in+HEK293+cells:+peptone+addition+posttransfection+improves+recombinant+protein+synthesis.">Transient gene expression in HEK293 cells: peptone addition posttransfection improves recombinant protein synthesis.</a> Biotechnol. Bioeng. 90, 332-344 (2005).</li><li>Thomas, P., Smart, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HEK293+cell+line:+a+vehicle+for+the+expression+of+recombinant+proteins.">HEK293 cell line: a vehicle for the expression of recombinant proteins.</a> J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods. 51, 187-200 (2005).</li><li>Maurisse, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+transfection+of+DNA+into+primary+and+transformed+mammalian+cells+from+different+lineages.">Comparative transfection of DNA into primary and transformed mammalian cells from different lineages.</a> BMC Biotechnol. 10, 9 (2010).</li></ol>

We have nothing to disclose.

The coculture method described here provides an effective way to determine the physiological importance of specific beta-cell-surface, transmembrane proteins, and specifically of their extracellular domains. By culturing beta cells or insulinoma cells (such as the INS-1 cells employed here) in contact with HEK293 cells displaying a protein of interest on the cell surface, experiments can be designed to determine the effects of extracellular protein-protein interactions without directly disturbing the intracellular milieu...

We describe here a method to facilitate investigations of how the extracellular domains of specific transmembrane proteins affect insulin secretion. The method probes the effects of interactions of the protein of interest with proteins (or possibly other molecules) on the pancreatic beta-cell surface. The method allows investigations of how cell-surface proteins expressed by beta cells or by other neighboring cells (e.g. endothelial cells, neurons, pancreatic alpha cells) affect beta-cell function through transcellular interactions (i.e. through interactions with interaction partners on the surface of adjacent beta cells).
The cellular plasma membrane contains a complex array of structural and functional proteins serving as bridges to the extracellular environment. By formation of transcellular connections or by initiation of plastic signaling events, interactions between cell-surface proteins can help coordinate the function of neighboring cells. Pancreatic beta cells are clustered together within the pancreatic islets and act in a coordinated fashion to maintain glucose homeostasis1. As revealed, for example, by the importance of extracellular EphA-ephrinA and neuroligin-2 interactions in the regulation of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, it is becoming ever more clear that increased knowledge of the extracellular interactions occurring between proteins on the surfaces of adjacent beta cells will be of great importance for gaining a full understanding of insulin secretion, beta cell functional maturation and the maintenance of glucose homeostasis1-3. The goal of the method described here is to enable investigations of the effects on beta cell function of transcellular interactions involving specific transmembrane or otherwise-cell-surface-associated proteins. By co-culturing beta cells with HEK293 cells transfected with different expression constructs, the effects on beta cell function of different cell-surface proteins or mutated variants thereof can be efficiently probed. This is accomplished without having to transfect the beta cells themselves.
Elucidation of the roles of particular transcellular interactions by knockdown, knockout or overexpression studies in cultured beta cells or in vivo necessitates direct perturbation of beta-cell mRNA and protein expression, potentially affecting beta cell health and/or function in ways that could confound analyses of the effects of specific extracellular interactions. These approaches also alter levels of the intracellular domains of the targeted proteins and, further, do not allow effects due to interactions between proteins on or in the same cell to be distinguished from the effects of transcellular interactions. Here, a method for determining the effect of specific transcellular interactions on the insulin secreting capacity and responsiveness of beta cells is described. This method is applicable to insulin-secreting beta-cell lines, such as INS-1 cells4, and to dissociated primary rodent or human beta cells. It is based on coculture models developed by neurobiologists, who found that exposure of cultured neurons to specific neuronal proteins expressed on HEK293 (or COS) cell layers could identify proteins that drive synapse formation5,6. Given the parallels between the secretory machinery of neuronal synapses and of beta cells, we reasoned that beta-cell function and functional maturation might be driven by similar transcellular interactions7-9. In order to probe these interactions, we developed the system described herein in which beta cells are cocultured on a layer of HEK293 cells expressing a protein of interest10. This system allows the beta-cell cytoplasm to remain untouched while extracellular protein-protein interactions are manipulated.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of the reagent</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue number</td>
			<td>Comments (optional)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pcDNA 3.3 vector/backbone</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>K830001</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lipofectamine 2000</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18324012</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-312</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen/strep solution</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-652-1</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-808-1/30</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI-1640</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-404</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-PBS</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-434</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Pyruvate</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-710-1</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>21985023</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell stripper</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45000-668</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T75 Flask</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>1368065</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16% Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>50980487</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10X PBS</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>45001-130</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Mediatech</td>
			<td>MT35010CV</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IBMX</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>I5879-100MG</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RIPA lysis buffer</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>R0278</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

coculture analysis of extracellular protein interactions affecting insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells

Interactions between cell-surface proteins help coordinate the function of neighboring cells. Pancreatic beta cells are clustered together within pancreatic islets and act in a coordinated fashion to maintain glucose homeostasis. It is becoming increasingly clear that interactions between transmembrane proteins on the surfaces of adjacent beta cells are important determinants of beta-cell function.
Elucidation of the roles of particular transcellular interactions by knockdown, knockout or overexpression studies in cultured beta cells or in vivo necessitates direct perturbation of mRNA and protein expression, potentially affecting beta-cell health and/or function in ways that could confound analyses of the effects of specific interactions. These approaches also alter levels of the intracellular domains of the targeted proteins and may prevent effects due to interactions between proteins within the same cell membrane to be distinguished from the effects of transcellular interactions.
Here a method for determining the effect of specific transcellular interactions on the insulin secreting capacity and responsiveness of beta cells is presented. This method is applicable to beta-cell lines, such as INS-1 cells, and to dissociated primary beta cells. It is based on coculture models developed by neurobiologists, who found that exposure of cultured neurons to specific neuronal proteins expressed on HEK293 (or COS) cell layers identified proteins important for driving synapse formation. Given the parallels between the secretory machinery of neuronal synapses and of beta cells, we reasoned that beta-cell functional maturation might be driven by similar transcellular interactions. We developed a system where beta cells are cultured on a layer of HEK293 cells expressing a protein of interest. In this model, the beta-cell cytoplasm is untouched while extracellular protein-protein interactions are manipulated. Although we focus here primarily on studies of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, other processes can be analyzed; for example, changes in gene expression as determined by immunoblotting or qPCR.

Using the method described here, we have tested the effect of different variants of the protein neuroligin on insulin secretion. This complements our published work investigating the effect of neuroligin-2 on beta-cell function10. Figure 2, for example, depicts results obtained from coculturing INS-1 beta cells with HEK293 cells transfected to express a neuroligin isoform referred to here as NL-X. This experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that NL-X engages in transcellular interactio...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Coculture Analysis of Extracellular Protein Interactions Affecting Insulin Secretion by Pancreatic Beta Cells at JoVE.com

Coculture Analysis of Extracellular Protein Interactions Affecting Insulin Secretion by Pancreatic Beta Cells

Transcellular protein interactions are important determinants of pancreatic beta-cell function. Detailed here is a method&#x2014;adapted from a coculture model of synaptogenesis&#x2014;for investigating how specific transmembrane proteins influence insulin secretion. Transfected HEK293 cells express proteins of interest; beta cells do not need to be transfected or otherwise directly perturbed.

Interactions between cell-surface proteins help coordinate the function of neighboring cells. Pancreatic beta cells are clustered together within ...

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12.8K Views.  University of California, San Diego. Transcellular protein interactions are important determinants of pancreatic beta-cell function. Detailed here is a method—adapted from a coculture model of synaptogenesis—for investigating how specific transmembrane proteins influence insulin secretion. Transfected HEK293 cells express proteins of interest; beta cells do not need to be transfected or otherwise directly perturbed.

Video: Coculture Analysis of Extracellular Protein Interactions Affecting Insulin Secretion by Pancreatic Beta Cells

Improving IV Insulin Administration in a Community Hospital

Diabetes mellitus is a major independent risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality in the hospitalized patient, and elevated blood glucose concentrations, even in non-diabetic patients, predicts poor outcomes.1-4 The 2008 consensus statement by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) and the American Diabetes Association (ADA) states that "hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients, irrespective of its cause, is unequivocally associated with adverse outcomes."5 It is important to recognize that hyperglycemia occurs in patients with known or undiagnosed diabetes as well as during acute illness in those with previously normal glucose tolerance.
The Normoglycemia in Intensive Care Evaluation-Survival Using Glucose Algorithm Regulation (NICE-SUGAR) study involved over six thousand adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients who were randomized to intensive glucose control or conventional glucose control.6 Surprisingly, this trial found that intensive glucose control increased the risk of mortality by 14% (odds ratio, 1.14; p=0.02). In addition, there was an increased prevalence of severe hypoglycemia in the intensive control group compared with the conventional control group (6.8% vs. 0.5%, respectively; p&lt;0.001). From this pivotal trial and two others,7,8 Wyoming Medical Center (WMC) realized the importance of controlling hyperglycemia in the hospitalized patient while avoiding the negative impact of resultant hypoglycemia. 
Despite multiple revisions of an IV insulin paper protocol, analysis of data from usage of the paper protocol at WMC shows that in terms of achieving normoglycemia while minimizing hypoglycemia, results were suboptimal. Therefore, through a systematical implementation plan, monitoring of patient blood glucose levels was switched from using a paper IV insulin protocol to a computerized glucose management system. By comparing blood glucose levels using the paper protocol to that of the computerized system, it was determined, that overall, the computerized glucose management system resulted in more rapid and tighter glucose control than the traditional paper protocol. Specifically, a substantial increase in the time spent within the target blood glucose concentration range, as well as a decrease in the prevalence of severe hypoglycemia (BG &lt; 40 mg/dL), clinical hypoglycemia (BG &lt; 70 mg/dL), and hyperglycemia (BG &gt; 180 mg/dL), was witnessed in the first five months after implementation of the computerized glucose management system. The computerized system achieved target concentrations in greater than 75% of all readings while minimizing the risk of hypoglycemia. The prevalence of hypoglycemia (BG &lt; 70 mg/dL) with the use of the computer glucose management system was well under 1%.

When compared to the previous paper protocol, implementation of a computerized glucose management system results in a substantial increase in blood glucose concentration measurements within the target range. Using a computerized glucose management system to monitor blood glucose levels, decreases in severe hypoglycemia (&lt;40 mg/dL), clinical hypoglycemia (&lt;70 mg/dL), and hyperglycemia (&gt;180 mg/dL) also can be observed.

Diabetes mellitus is a major independent risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality in the hospitalized patient, and elevated blood glucose ...

Isolation, Characterization and Comparative Differentiation of Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells Derived from Permanent Teeth by Using Two Different Methods

Developing wisdom teeth are easy-accessible source of stem cells during the adulthood which could be obtained by routine orthodontic treatments. Human pulp-derived stem cells (hDPSCs) possess high proliferation potential with multi-lineage differentiation capacity compare to the ordinary source of adult stem cells1-8; therefore, hDPSCs could be the good candidates for autologous transplantation in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Along with these benefits, possessing the mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) features, such as immunolodulatory effect, make hDPSCs more valuable, even in the case of allograft transplantation6,9,10. Therefore, the primary step for using this source of stem cells is to select the best protocol for isolating hDPSCs from pulp tissue. In order to achieve this goal, it is crucial to investigate the effect of various isolation conditions on different cellular behaviors, such as their common surface markers &amp; also their differentiation capacity.
Thus, here we separate human pulp tissue from impacted third molar teeth, and then used both existing protocols based on literature, for isolating hDPSCs,11-13 i.e. enzymatic dissociation of pulp tissue (DPSC-ED) or outgrowth from tissue explants (DPSC-OG). In this regards, we tried to facilitate the isolation methods by using dental diamond disk. Then, these cells characterized in terms of stromal-associated Markers (CD73, CD90, CD105 &amp; CD44), hematopoietic/endothelial Markers (CD34, CD45 &amp; CD11b), perivascular marker, like CD146 and also STRO-1. Afterwards, these two protocols were compared based on the differentiation potency into odontoblasts by both quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) &amp; Alizarin Red Staining. QPCR were used for the assessment of the expression of the mineralization-related genes (alkaline phosphatase; ALP, matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein; MEPE &amp; dentin sialophosphoprotein; DSPP).14

The method described isolation and characterization of human Dental Pulp Stem Cells (hDPSCs) by using either enzymatic dissociation of pulp (DPSC-ED) or direct outgrowth of stem cells from pulp tissue explants (DPSC-OG). Then followed by in vitro comparative differentiation of both types of hDPSCs into odontoblasts.

Developing wisdom teeth are easy-accessible source of stem cells during the adulthood which could be obtained by routine orthodontic treatments. Human ...

Coculture System with an Organotypic Brain Slice and 3D Spheroid of Carcinoma Cells

Patients with cerebral metastasis of carcinomas have a poor prognosis. However, the process at the metastatic site has barely been investigated, in particular the role of the resident (stromal) cells. Studies in primary carcinomas demonstrate the influence of the microenvironment on metastasis, even on prognosis1,2. Especially the tumor associated macrophages (TAM) support migration, invasion and proliferation3. Interestingly, the major target sites of metastasis possess tissue-specific macrophages, such as Kupffer cells in the liver or microglia in the CNS. Moreover, the metastatic sites also possess other tissue-specific cells, like astrocytes. Recently, astrocytes were demonstrated to foster proliferation and persistence of cancer cells4,5. Therefore, functions of these tissue-specific cell types seem to be very important in the process of brain metastasis6,7.
Despite these observations, however, up to now there is no suitable in vivo/in vitro model available to directly visualize glial reactions during cerebral metastasis formation, in particular by bright field microscopy. Recent in vivo live imaging of carcinoma cells demonstrated their cerebral colonization behavior8. However, this method is very laborious, costly and technically complex. In addition, these kinds of animal experiments are restricted to small series and come with a substantial stress for the animals (by implantation of the glass plate, injection of tumor cells, repetitive anaesthesia and long-term fixation). Furthermore, in vivo imaging is thus far limited to the visualization of the carcinoma cells, whereas interactions with resident cells have not yet been illustrated. Finally, investigations of human carcinoma cells within immunocompetent animals are impossible8.
For these reasons, we established a coculture system consisting of an organotypic mouse brain slice and epithelial cells embedded in matrigel (3D cell sphere). The 3D carcinoma cell spheres were placed directly next to the brain slice edge in order to investigate the invasion of the neighboring brain tissue. This enables us to visualize morphological changes and interactions between the glial cells and carcinoma cells by fluorescence and even by bright field microscopy. After the coculture experiment, the brain tissue or the 3D cell spheroids can be collected and used for further molecular analyses (e.g. qRT-PCR, IHC, or immunoblot) as well as for investigations by confocal microscopy. This method can be applied to monitor the events within a living brain tissue for days without deleterious effects to the brain slices. The model also allows selective suppression and replacement of resident cells by cells from a donor tissue to determine the distinct impact of a given genotype. Finally, the coculture model is a practicable alternative to in vivo approaches when testing targeted pharmacological manipulations.

The organotypic brain slice coculture with carcinoma cells enables visualizing morphological changes by fluorescence as well as bright field (video) microscopy during the process of carcinoma cell invasion of brain tissue. This model system also allows for cell exchange and replenishment approaches and offers a wide variety of manipulations and analyses.

Patients with cerebral metastasis of carcinomas have a poor prognosis. However, the process at the metastatic site has barely been investigated, in ...

Human Dupuytren's Ex Vivo Culture for the Study of Myofibroblasts and Extracellular Matrix Interactions

Organ fibrosis or &#8220;scarring&#8221; is known to account for a high death toll due to the extensive amount of disorders and organs affected (from cirrhosis to cardiovascular diseases). There is no effective treatment and the in vitro tools available do not mimic the in vivo situation rendering the progress of the out of control wound healing process still enigmatic.
To date, 2D and 3D cultures of fibroblasts derived from DD patients are the main experimental models available. Primary cell cultures have many limitations; the fibroblasts derived from DD are altered by the culture conditions, lack cellular context and interactions, which are crucial for the development of fibrosis and weakly represent the derived tissue. Real-time PCR analysis of fibroblasts derived from control and DD samples show that little difference is detectable. 3D cultures of fibroblasts include addition of extracellular matrix that alters the native conditions of these cells. 
As a way to characterize the fibrotic, proliferative properties of these resection specimens we have developed a 3D culture system, using intact human resections of the nodule part of the cord. The system is based on transwell plates with an attached nitrocellulose membrane that allows contact of the tissue with the medium but not with the plastic, thus, preventing the alteration of the tissue. No collagen gel or other extracellular matrix protein substrate is required. The tissue resection specimens maintain their viability and proliferative properties for 7 days. This is the first &#8220;organ&#8221; culture system that allows human resection specimens from DD patients to be grown ex vivo and functionally tested, recapitulating the in vivo situation.

Human Dupuytren&#039;s Ex Vivo Culture for the Study of Myofibroblasts and Extracellular Matrix Interactions

Dupuytren&#8217;s disease (DD) is a fibroproliferative disease of the palm of the hand. Here, we present a protocol to culture resection specimens from DD in a three-dimensional (3D) culture system. Such short-term culture system allows preservation of the 3D structure and molecular properties of the fibrotic tissue.

Organ fibrosis or &#8220;scarring&#8221; is known to account for a high death toll due to the extensive amount of disorders and organs affected (from ...

Studying Pancreatic Cancer Stem Cell Characteristics for Developing New Treatment Strategies

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) contains a subset of exclusively tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) which have been shown to drive tumor initiation, metastasis and resistance to radio- and chemotherapy. Here we describe a specific methodology for culturing primary human pancreatic CSCs as tumor spheres in anchorage-independent conditions. Cells are grown in serum-free, non-adherent conditions in order to enrich for CSCs while their more differentiated progenies do not survive and proliferate during the initial phase following seeding of single cells. This assay can be used to estimate the percentage of CSCs present in a population of tumor cells. Both size (which can range from 35 to 250 micrometers) and number of tumor spheres formed represents CSC activity harbored in either bulk populations of cultured cancer cells or freshly harvested and digested tumors 1,2. Using this assay, we recently found that metformin selectively ablates pancreatic CSCs; a finding that was subsequently further corroborated by demonstrating diminished expression of pluripotency-associated genes/surface markers and reduced in vivo tumorigenicity of metformin-treated cells. As the final step for preclinical development we treated mice bearing established tumors with metformin and found significantly prolonged survival. Clinical studies testing the use of metformin in patients with PDAC are currently underway (e.g., NCT01210911, NCT01167738, and NCT01488552). Mechanistically, we found that metformin induces a fatal energy crisis in CSCs by enhancing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reducing mitochondrial transmembrane potential. In contrast, non-CSCs were not eliminated by metformin treatment, but rather underwent reversible cell cycle arrest. Therefore, our study serves as a successful example for the potential of in vitro sphere formation as a screening tool to identify compounds that potentially target CSCs, but this technique will require further in vitro and in vivo validation to eliminate false discoveries.

Pancreatic cancer stem cells (CSCs) can be expanded in vitro using the anchorage-independent sphere culture technique, which represents a powerful tool to study CSC biology and can serve as the first step to develop novel CSC-targeting therapies. Here the methodology for expanding, analyzing and targeting of pancreatic CSCs is provided.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) contains a subset of exclusively tumorigenic cancer stem cells (CSCs) which have been shown to drive tumor ...

Neurodegeneration in an Animal Model of Chronic Amyloid-beta Oligomer Infusion Is Counteracted by Antibody Treatment Infused with Osmotic Pumps

Decline in hippocampal-dependent explicit memory (memory for facts and events) is one of the earliest clinical symptom of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). It is well established that synapse loss and ensuing neurodegeneration are the best predictors for memory impairments in AD. Latest studies have emphasized the neurotoxic role of soluble amyloid-beta oligomers (A&#946;o) that begin to accumulate in the human brain approximately 10 to 15 yr before the clinical symptoms become apparent. Many reports indicate that soluble A&#946;o correlate with memory deficits in AD models and humans. The A&#946;o-induced neurodegeneration observed in neuronal and brain slice cultures has been more challenging to reproduce in many animal models. The model of repeated A&#946;o infusions shown here overcome this issue and allow addressing two key domains for developing new disease modifying therapies: identify biological markers to diagnose early AD, and determine the molecular mechanisms underpinning A&#946;o-induced memory deficits at the onset of AD. Since soluble A&#946;o aggregate relatively fast into insoluble A&#946; fibrils that correlate poorly with the clinical state of patients, soluble A&#946;o are prepared freshly and injected once per day during six days to produce marked cell death in the hippocampus. We used cannula specially design for simultaneous infusions of A&#946;o and continuous infusion of A&#946;o antibody (6E10) in the hippocampus using osmotic pumps. This innovative in vivo method can now be used in preclinical studies to validate the efficiency of new AD therapies that might prevent the deposition and neurotoxicity of A&#946;o in pre-dementia patients.

To study the effects of A&#946;o in vivo, we developed a model based on repeated hippocampal infusions of soluble A&#946;o coupled with continuous infusion of A&#946;o antibody (6E10) in the hippocampus using osmotic pumps to counteract the neurotoxic effect of A&#946;o.

Decline in hippocampal-dependent explicit memory (memory for facts and events) is one of the earliest clinical symptom of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). It ...

Quantitative 3D In Silico Modeling (q3DISM) of Cerebral Amyloid-beta Phagocytosis in Rodent Models of Alzheimer's Disease

Neuroinflammation is now recognized as a major etiological factor in neurodegenerative disease. Mononuclear phagocytes are innate immune cells responsible for phagocytosis and clearance of debris and detritus. These cells include CNS-resident macrophages known as microglia, and mononuclear phagocytes infiltrating from the periphery. Light microscopy has generally been used to visualize phagocytosis in rodent or human brain specimens. However, qualitative methods have not provided definitive evidence of in vivo phagocytosis. Here, we describe quantitative 3D in silico modeling (q3DISM), a robust method allowing for true 3D quantitation of amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes in rodent Alzheimer&#39;s Disease (AD) models. The method involves fluorescently visualizing A&#946; encapsulated within phagolysosomes in rodent brain sections. Large z-dimensional confocal datasets are then 3D reconstructed for quantitation of A&#946; spatially colocalized within the phagolysosome. We demonstrate the successful application of q3DISM to mouse and rat brains, but this methodology can be extended to virtually any phagocytic event in any tissue.

Quantitative 3D In Silico Modeling q3DISM of Cerebral Amyloid-beta Phagocytosis in Rodent Models of Alzheimer&#039;s Disease

We developed a methodology for quantitative 3D in silico modeling (q3DISM) of cerebral amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes in rodent models of Alzheimer&#39;s disease. This method can be generalized for the quantitation of virtually any phagocytic event in vivo.

Neuroinflammation is now recognized as a major etiological factor in neurodegenerative disease. Mononuclear phagocytes are innate immune cells responsible ...

Homogeneous Time-resolved F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer-based Assay for Detection of Insulin Secretion

The detection of insulin secretion is critical for elucidating mechanisms of regulated secretion as well as in studies of metabolism. Though numerous insulin assays have existed for decades, the recent advent of homogeneous time-resolved F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (HTRF) technology has significantly simplified these measurements. This is a rapid, cost-effective, reproducible, and robust optical assay reliant upon antibodies conjugated to bright fluorophores with long lasting emission which facilitates time-resolved F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer. Moreover, HTRF insulin detection is amenable for the development of high-throughput screening assays. Here we use HTRF to detect insulin secretion in INS-1E cells, a rat insulinoma-derived cell line. This allows us to estimate basal levels of insulin and their changes in response to glucose stimulation. In addition, we use this insulin detection system to confirm the role of dopamine as a negative regulator of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). In a similar manner, other dopamine D2-like receptor agonists, quinpirole, and bromocriptine, reduce GSIS in a concentration-dependent manner. Our results highlight the utility of the HTRF insulin assay format in determining the role of numerous drugs in GSIS and their pharmacological profiles.

Homogeneous Time-resolved F&amp;#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer-based Assay for Detection of Insulin Secretion

Here, we present homogeneous time resolved FRET (HTRF) as an efficient method for rapid detection of insulin secreted from cells.

The detection of insulin secretion is critical for elucidating mechanisms of regulated secretion as well as in studies of metabolism. Though numerous ...

Isolation of Primary Mouse Hepatocytes for Nascent Protein Synthesis Analysis by Non-radioactive L-azidohomoalanine Labeling Method

Hepatocytes are parenchymal cells of the liver and engage multiple metabolic functions, including synthesis and secretion of proteins essential for systemic energy homeostasis. Primary hepatocytes isolated from the murine liver constitute a valuable biological tool to understand the functional properties or alterations occurring in the liver. Herein we describe a method for the isolation and culture of primary mouse hepatocytes by performing a two-step collagenase perfusion technique and discuss their utilization for investigating protein metabolism. The liver of an adult mouse is sequentially perfused with ethylene glycol-bis tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and collagenase, followed by the isolation of hepatocytes with the density gradient buffer. These isolated hepatocytes are viable on culture plates and maintain the majority of endowed characteristics of hepatocytes. These hepatocytes can be used for assessments of protein metabolism including nascent protein synthesis with non-radioactive reagents. We show that the isolated hepatocytes are readily controlled and comprise a higher quality and volume stability of protein synthesis linked to energy metabolism by utilizing the chemo-selective ligation reaction with a Tetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) protein detection method and western blotting analyses. Therefore, this method is valuable for investigating hepatic nascent protein synthesis linked to energy homeostasis. The following protocol outlines the materials and methods for the isolation of high-quality primary mouse hepatocytes and detection of nascent protein synthesis.

Here, we present a protocol for the isolation of healthy and functional primary mouse hepatocytes. Instructions for detecting hepatic nascent protein synthesis by non-radioactive labeling substrate were provided to help understand the mechanisms underlying protein synthesis in the context of energy-metabolism homeostasis in the liver.

Hepatocytes are parenchymal cells of the liver and engage multiple metabolic functions, including synthesis and secretion of proteins essential for ...

Bio-energetics Investigation of Candida albicans Using Real-time Extracellular Flux Analysis

Mitochondria are essential organelles for the cellular metabolism and survival. A variety of key events take place in mitochondria, such as cellular respiration, oxidative metabolism, signal transduction, and apoptosis. Consequently, mitochondrial dysfunction is reported to play an important role in the antifungal drug tolerance and virulence of pathogenic fungi. Recent data have also led to the recognition of the importance of the mitochondria as an important contributor to fungal pathogenesis. Despite the importance of the mitochondria in fungal biology, standardized methods to understand its function are poorly developed. Here, we present a procedure to study the basal oxygen consumption rate (OCR), a measure of mitochondrial respiration, and extracellular acidification rates (ECAR), a measure of glycolytic function in C. albicans strains. The method described herein can be applied to any Candidaspp. strains without the need to purify mitochondria from the intact fungal cells. Furthermore, this protocol can also be customized to screen for inhibitors of mitochondrial function in C. albicans strains.

Bio-energetics Investigation of Candida albicans Using Real-time Extracellular Flux Analysis

Here, we present a stepwise protocol to investigate the mitochondrial respiration and glycolytic function in Candida Albicans using an extra flux analyzer.

Mitochondria are essential organelles for the cellular metabolism and survival. A variety of key events take place in mitochondria, such as cellular ...