We are grateful to Michela de Martino, Wilfred R. Hagen, and Kourosh Honarmand Ebrahimi for useful discussions. This work was supported by start-up funding from the Delft University of Technology.

1. Dps Expression and Purification
Obtaining protein of high purity is an essential first step for the DNA-protection assay. Purification of Dps protein can be performed in 4 to 5 days.
<ol>
	<li>Transform a protease-deficient strain of E. coli (such as BL21(DE3) pLysS) with a pET vector (such as pET17) into which the Dps protein-encoding sequence has been cloned.</li>
	<li>Streak the transformed cells out onto Luria Broth (LB) agar plates containing appropriate antibiotics (such as ampicillin and chloramphenicol for the examples provided in 1.1). Incubate the plates overnight at 37 &deg;C.</li>
	<li>Inoculate a single colony from the plate into 30 ml of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Incubate overnight at 37 &deg;C while shaking at 200-250 rpm.</li>
	<li>Inoculate 2 x 1 L LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics with 10 ml each of the overnight culture. Grow at 37 &deg;C, while shaking, to O.D.600 of approximately 0.6. (Growing cells to higher O.D. increases protein yield, without noticeably compromising the purity of the final product.) Induce expression of Dps by adding IPTG to a concentration of 0.3 mM, and incubate at 37 &deg;C for 3-4 hr while shaking.</li>
	<li>Harvest cells by centrifugation at 6,000 x g for 15 min. Resuspend the cell pellets in 7.5 ml of DEAE buffer A (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA) per L of induced cell culture. Samples may be frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 &deg;C, if desired. The procedure may then be continued by thawing the samples in a water bath at 4 &deg;C.</li>
	<li>Add a mixture of protease inhibitors (such as Calbiochem set III protease inhibitors, at 0.167 &mu;l per ml of cell suspension) to the cell suspension to prevent degradation of overexpressed Dps.</li>
	<li>Prepare cell-free extract using a French press. Prime the French press with 20 ml DEAE Buffer A (if using a continuous-flow model), then disrupt the sample twice at 20 kpsi. Centrifuge the lysate at 30,000 x g for 35 min at 4 &deg;C to clarify insoluble particles, and save the supernatant. The supernatant may then be frozen using liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 &deg;C, if desired.</li>
	<li>Equilibrate a 30 ml DEAE Sepharose CL-6B column with DEAE Buffer A, using an FPLC. Run buffer through the column at 1-2 ml/min with a maximum pressure of 0.2 MPa over background. Load the cell-free extract onto the column, and begin to collect the flow-through once the O.D.280 signal begins to increase above baseline. Wash the column with DEAE Buffer A until the O.D.280 value returns to baseline, while continuously collecting the flow-through. The flow-through should contain the majority of the Dps protein, free from bound DNA. Wash the column with 100% Buffer B (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 1 M NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA). This eluate contains Dps-DNA complexes as well as other proteins and can be discarded.</li>
	<li>Remove additional contaminating proteins through ammonium sulfate precipitation. Determine the volume of pooled flow-through. Slowly (over a period of 10-20 min) add dry small-grain ammonium sulfate to 62% saturation (390 mg per ml of solution) at 4 &deg;C while stirring well. Stir the mixture for an additional 20-30 min after adding the last portion of ammonium sulfate to ensure complete equilibration. Dps will remain soluble, while contaminating proteins will precipitate out of solution.</li>
	<li>Remove precipitated proteins by centrifugation at 20,000 x g for 30 min at 4 &deg;C and save the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Slowly add an additional 227 mg ammonium sulfate per ml of supernatant to reach 94% saturation and stir for 20-30 min to ensure complete equilibration. Dps precipitates at this high salt concentration and can be collected by centrifugation at 20,000 x g for 30 min at 4 &deg;C. Dps will be in the pellet; the supernatant can be discarded. The pellet can be stored at -80 &deg;C if desired.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the Dps-containing pellet in Resuspension Buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA). Adjust the sample volume to 2.5 ml.</li>
	<li>Buffer exchange to remove the ammonium sulfate by using a PD-10 gel filtration column. Equilibrate the gel bed with 25 ml Resuspension Buffer. Apply the 2.5 ml of Dps sample to the top of the PD-10 column and allow it to soak in. Discard the flow-through. Collect Dps by eluting with 3.5 ml Resuspension Buffer.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the buffer-exchanged sample at 16,000 x g for 10 min at 4 &deg;C to remove any insoluble components, and dilute it with 6-10 ml Dilution Buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 0.1 mM EDTA) to ensure that the salt concentration is low enough for Dps to bind to the SP Sepharose column. Particularly concentrated samples of Dps may become less soluble upon dilution into a lower-salt buffer, as evidenced by cloudiness of the liquid, but can be completely resolubilized by the addition of a small amount of 5 M NaCl solution (an additional 10-20 mM).</li>
	<li>Equilibrate a 30 ml SP Sepharose Fast Flow column with SP Buffer A (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 50 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA). Run buffer through the column at 1.5-2 ml/min with a pressure limit of 0.3 MPa over background. Load the sample onto the column. Wash with SP Buffer A until the O.D.280 trace returns to baseline, and discard the flow-through. Run a 150 ml linear gradient from 0 to 100% Buffer B, while collecting 2 ml fractions. Dps will elute in a sharp peak at around 50% B, though variation by 10% is possible.</li>
	<li>Run the elution fractions on a 15% SDS-PAGE gel, and check for DNA contamination by measuring the O.D.260/ O.D.280 ratio using a spectrophotometer. The gel should only show one band around 19 kDa, and the O.D.260/ O.D.280 is typically around 0.7. Pool the purest Dps fractions. Use a centrifugal filter unit (such as the Amicon Ultra Filtration Unit) with a 10K molecular weight cut-off to concentrate the Dps and exchange it into a storage buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 7.5, 50 mM NaCl). Aliquot the purified Dps, and freeze in liquid nitrogen for storage at -80 &deg;C.</li>
</ol>
2. DNA Protection Assay
The assay involves multiple time-sensitive steps and should be timed to the second to obtain reproducible results. Many ingredients and pipetting steps are involved, so a pipetting table (see Table 1) is advisable to keep track of steps and volumes. The total time required for the assay is no more than 3 hr.
<ol>
	<li>Measure 30 ml water into an airtight vial; flush the water with N2 for 10 min (using two syringe needles, one in the fluid, one above it) to remove oxygen from solution. Add 0.0168 g FeSO4&bull;7H2O to the water to obtain a 2 mM stock solution. Seal the vial and flush with nitrogen for 5 min more, then mix. The solution must be clear; if any hint of yellow is detectable, prepare a new iron solution.</li>
	<li>Make a 100 mM H2O2 solution (10.87 &mu;l of 9.2M H2O2 into 1 ml water); keep on ice and shielded from light by wrapping in aluminum foil. Use only for about 1-2 hr after preparation due to spontaneous decay. The hydrogen peroxide stock is similarly subject to breakdown, which may be partially ameliorated by proper storage (in the dark, at 4 &deg;C). Regular checks of the stock concentration by measuring the O.D.240 are recommended.</li>
	<li>Thaw an aliquot of purified Dps rapidly in a room-temperature water bath, and keep on ice. Centrifuge for 10 sec at 4,000 x g in a table top picocentrifuge to precipitate aggregates. Measure concentration after centrifuging using a spectrophotometer (O.D.280=1.547 indicates a concentration of 100 &mu;M monomer Dps).</li>
	<li>Dilute linear DNA from high-concentration stock using 12x reaction buffer (1 M MOPS-KOH pH 7.0, 1 M NaCl) to a concentration of 100 ng/&mu;l. Linear DNA is used to make quantification easier, but plasmid DNA may be used as well.</li>
	<li>Pipette 1 &mu;l of the DNA-buffer mixture into a PCR tube. Add enough water into the reaction so that the final reaction volume (minus SDS) will be 12 &mu;l. This amount should be calculated in advance using the pipetting table. Add Dps to a final dodecamer concentration of 3 &mu;M. Incubate for 15 min at room temperature to allow for Dps to bind to DNA.</li>
	<li>Add enough 2 mM FeSO4 solution to reach the desired concentration. A typical experiment uses a range of concentrations from 0 to 1 mM FeSO4. Higher concentrations will cause more extensive DNA degradation but may also lead to formation of ferric precipitates in the reaction mixture. Quickly add 1 &mu;l of the 100 mM H2O2 solution (to 10 mM final concentration), and incubate at room temperature for 5 min to allow the Fenton-mediated degradation reaction to take place.</li>
	<li>Add 0.8 &mu;l of 20% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate). Mix and incubate at 85 &deg;C for 5 min to disrupt the Dps-DNA complexes. The SDS destabilizes the Dps-DNA complex and prevents unwanted gel shifts for the DNA, which improves the ease of quantification. An optional step is to stop the reaction by catalytically degrading the hydrogen peroxide into non-toxic products. For the conditions described in this protocol, this step is not needed to obtain a broad range of DNA degradation.</li>
	<li>Incubate on ice for 1 min, add loading dye, and load on an agarose gel. Run the gel, and stain for DNA using ethidium bromide. The gel should be stained post-electrophoresis rather than prior to electrophoresis, to prevent the SDS from interfering with the ethidium bromide distribution in the gel.</li>
</ol>

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J., Furlong, D., Kolter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+DNA-binding+protein+with+regulatory+and+protective+roles+in+starved+Escherichia+coli.">A novel DNA-binding protein with regulatory and protective roles in starved Escherichia coli.</a> Genes Dev. 6, 2646-2654 (1992).</li><li>Chiancone, E., Ceci, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+multifaceted+capacity+of+Dps+proteins+to+combat+bacterial+stress+conditions:+Detoxification+of+iron+and+hydrogen+peroxide+and+DNA+binding.">The multifaceted capacity of Dps proteins to combat bacterial stress conditions: Detoxification of iron and hydrogen peroxide and DNA binding.</a> Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1800 (8), 798-805 (2010).</li><li>Ali Azam, T., Iwata, A., Nishimura, A., Ueda, S., Ishihama, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+phase-dependent+variation+in+protein+composition+of+the+Escherichia+coli+nucleoid.">Growth phase-dependent variation in protein composition of the Escherichia coli nucleoid.</a> J. 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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dps+protects+cells+against+multiple+stresses+during+stationary+phase.">Dps protects cells against multiple stresses during stationary phase.</a> J. Bacteriol. 186 (13), 4192-4198 (2004).</li><li>Grant, R. A., Filman, D. J., Finkel, S. E., Kolter, R., Hogle, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+crystal+structure+of+Dps,+a+ferritin+homolog+that+binds+and+protects+DNA.">The crystal structure of Dps, a ferritin homolog that binds and protects DNA.</a> Nat. Struct. 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Chem. 277 (40), 37619-37623 (2002).</li><li>Swift, J., Wehbi, W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+of+functional+ferritin-like+proteins+with+hydrophobic+cavities.">Design of functional ferritin-like proteins with hydrophobic cavities.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 128 (20), 6611-6619 (2006).</li><li>Ceci, P., Chiancone, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+of+iron+oxide+nanoparticles+in+Listeria+innocua+Dps+(DNA-binding+protein+from+starved+cells):+a+study+with+the+wild-type+protein+and+a+catalytic+centre+mutant.">Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles in Listeria innocua Dps (DNA-binding protein from starved cells): a study with the wild-type protein and a catalytic centre mutant.</a> Chemistry. 16 (2), 709-717 (2010).</li><li>Ceci, P., Ilari, A., Falvo, E., Chiancone, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Dps+protein+of+Agrobacterium+tumefaciens+does+not+bind+to+DNA+but+protects+it+toward+oxidative+cleavage:+x-ray+crystal+structure,+iron+binding,+and+hydroxyl-radical+scavenging+properties.">The Dps protein of Agrobacterium tumefaciens does not bind to DNA but protects it toward oxidative cleavage: x-ray crystal structure, iron binding, and hydroxyl-radical scavenging properties.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (22), 20319-20326 (2003).</li><li>Su, M., Cavallo, S., Stefanini, S., Chiancone, E., Chasteen, N. 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We have nothing to disclose.

The purification process of Dps as described in this article is very robust. Purity has consistently been high (&gt; 99%); no other proteins appear on SDS-PAGE gels as visible bands. Despite this, some batches of purified Dps appear to have nuclease activity, as evidenced by partial DNA degradation when incubated with very high concentrations of Dps. This might indicate the presence of highly active DNases at low concentration that we were unable to remove through purification. However, this DNA degradation is only obser...

Aerobic organisms must constantly contend with reactive oxygen species that can damage their DNA as well as other crucial biological macromolecules. One potent tool to counteract the toxic effects of oxidative damage is the DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps). Since its discovery in 1992 from starved E. coli culture 1, Dps has been identified in more than 300 species of bacteria and archaebacteria 2. Massive upregulation of Dps during stationary phase makes it the most highly expressed nucleoid-associated protein of E. coli under starvation conditions 3, 4. Additionally, Dps has been shown to preserve both bacterial viability and DNA integrity during many various stresses, including starvation, high iron concentration, UV light exposure, heat shock, and oxidative stress 5, 6.
Structurally, Dps self-associates into a stable homo-oligomeric complex of 12 monomers, which assemble into a spherical hollow shell. The ~4.5 nm-wide internal cavity is accessible to the exterior solvent via pores that allow the passage of small molecules 7, and it can sequester mineralized metals such as iron 8. The protective effect of Dps derives from its several biochemical activities, which include non-specific DNA binding 1, ferroxidase activity, and iron storage 8.
Detailed study of the beneficial biochemical activities of Dps first requires its purification. Dps purification is an elaborate procedure, as Dps must be separated not only from other proteins, but also from any bound DNA 7. Our optimized purification process uses many common techniques, consisting of two ion-exchange columns and an ammonium sulfate precipitation step. Several buffer exchanges are needed, as highly concentrated Dps can precipitate out of solution in low salt conditions. Once Dps protein has been purified, it may be applied to assays that directly measure its ferroxidase activity 8, DNA-binding stoichiometry 9, and mechanisms of iron binding 10. Purified Dps also has other potential applications. The stable hollow spherical structure of Dps has been used as scaffolding for storing hydrophobic particles inside the protein cavity 11 and even as a reaction chamber to synthesize novel magnetic nanoparticles 12.
The protective ability of Dps to mediate damage due to reactive oxygen species can be clearly and directly demonstrated using the DNA protection assay 13, 14. In this in vitro procedure, radical species are produced when iron catalyzes H2O2 degradation through Fenton chemistry. These radicals directly damage DNA present in the reaction and can completely degrade it at high concentrations. Two key Dps activities may both directly counteract the effects of Fenton-mediated radical production. Dps lowers the concentration of catalytic iron through mineralization, consuming the available hydrogen peroxide in the process. Additionally, Dps binding to DNA may potentially shield it physically from radical damage and condenses it into a smaller volume with less reactive surface area. The combination of these two properties makes the DNA protection assay well suited for the purpose of measuring protective Dps activity.
The DNA protection assay is quite versatile and can be used for a variety of applications beyond Dps characterization. Radical damage is a common form of stress in cells, and many different proteins and chemicals are used to counteract it. The general principle of the assay, using DNA integrity as a marker for radical damage, can be used in combination with almost any radical-producing reaction or counteracting agent. Among others, the assay has been successfully used to determine anti-oxidative properties of K. paniculata extract for use in food industry 15, to characterize the effects of uric acid on hydroxyl damage mediation 16, and to gain new insights into the function of Fur transcriptional regulator proteins 17.
Despite the numerous uses of the assay in published papers, we found that many optimization and troubleshooting steps were required, which makes setting up the assay for the first time an unnecessarily laborious process for many researchers. The protocol we present in this article aims to remove this barrier for entry.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalog Number</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>BL21(DE3)pLysS competent cells</td>
 <td>Promega</td>
 <td>L1195</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>pET-17b DNA</td>
 <td>EMD-Millipore</td>
 <td>69663-3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>LB broth powder</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>L3022</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ampicillin sodium salt</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A0166</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Chloramphenicol</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>C0378</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>IPTG</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>I6758</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>HEPES</td>
 <td>BDH</td>
 <td>441476L</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
 <td>Merck</td>
 <td>105033</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium chloride</td>
 <td>VWR</td>
 <td>443824T</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EDTA</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>E9884</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Set III</td>
 <td>EMD-Millipore</td>
 <td>539134</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>DEAE-Sepharose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>DFF100</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ammonium sulphate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A4418</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PD-10 Desalting Columns</td>
 <td>GE Healthcare LS</td>
 <td>17-0851-01</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SP-Sepharose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S1799</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Amicon Ultra Centr. Filter (10K MWCO)</td>
 <td>Millipore</td>
 <td>UFC901024</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ferrous Sulphate heptahydrate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>F8048</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Hydrogen peroxide solution</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>216763</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MOPS</td>
 <td>Calbiochem</td>
 <td>475898</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SDS solution</td>
 <td>Bio-Rad</td>
 <td>161-0418</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ethidium bromide</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>E1510</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Equipment</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Model</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Static incubator</td>
 <td>Hettich</td>
 <td>INE500</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Shaking Incubator </td>
 <td>New Brunswick Sc.</td>
 <td>Inova 44</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cooled centrifuge</td>
 <td>Beckman Coulter</td>
 <td>Avanti J-E</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Table-top centrifuge</td>
 <td>Eppendorf</td>
 <td>5424</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cell disrupter</td>
 <td>Constant Systems Ltd.</td>
 <td>TS2/40/AA/AA</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>FPLC Purifier</td>
 <td>General Electric</td>
 <td>AKTA</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Airtight vials</td>
 <td>Cole-Parmer</td>
 <td>EW-08918-85</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Syringe needles</td>
 <td>BD</td>
 <td>305128</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pipettes</td>
 <td>Eppendorf</td>
 <td>Z683779-1EA, Z683795-1EA</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

application of an in vitro dna protection assay to visualize stress mediation properties of the dps protein

Oxidative stress is an unavoidable byproduct of aerobic life. Molecular oxygen is essential for terrestrial metabolism, but it also takes part in many damaging reactions within living organisms. The combination of aerobic metabolism and iron, which is another vital compound for life, is enough to produce radicals through Fenton chemistry and degrade cellular components. DNA degradation is arguably the most damaging process involving intracellular radicals, as DNA repair is far from trivial. The assay presented in this article offers a quantitative technique to measure and visualize the effect of molecules and enzymes on radical-mediated DNA damage.
The DNA protection assay is a simple, quick, and robust tool for the in vitro characterization of the protective properties of proteins or chemicals. It involves exposing DNA to a damaging oxidative reaction and adding varying concentrations of the compound of interest. The reduction or increase of DNA damage as a function of compound concentration is then visualized using gel electrophoresis. In this article we demonstrate the technique of the DNA protection assay by measuring the protective properties of the DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps). Dps is a mini-ferritin that is utilized by more than 300 bacterial species to powerfully combat environmental stressors. Here we present the Dps purification protocol and the optimized assay conditions for evaluating DNA protection by Dps.

The purification process for Dps described here is very reproducible. Dps purification according to the described protocol, using 2 L of E. coli culture as a starting point, will typically yield 2.5 ml of protein containing Dps12 at concentrations between 5 and 12 &mu;M. Longer induction times (4 hr) seem to reduce this variability. Protein purity is consistently above 99%, as evidenced by SDS-PAGE gels (Figure 1). The level of DNA contamination is consistently negligible, as evidence...

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Application of an In vitro DNA Protection Assay to Visualize Stress Mediation Properties of the Dps Protein

The DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps) plays a crucial role in combating bacterial stress. This article discusses the purification of E. coli Dps and the protocol for an in vitro assay demonstrating Dps-mediated protection of DNA from degradation by reactive oxygen species.

Application of an In vitro DNA Protection Assay to Visualize Stress Mediation Properties of the Dps Protein

Oxidative stress is an unavoidable byproduct of  aerobic life.  Molecular oxygen is  essential for terrestrial metabolism, but it also takes part in many ...

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11.1K Views.  Delft University of Technology. The DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps) plays a crucial role in combating bacterial stress. This article discusses the purification of E. coli Dps and the protocol for an in vitro assay demonstrating Dps-mediated protection of DNA from degradation by reactive oxygen species.

Video: Application of an In vitro DNA Protection Assay to Visualize Stress Mediation Properties of the Dps Protein

An In vitro FluoroBlok Tumor Invasion Assay

The hallmark of metastatic cells is their ability to invade through the basement membrane and migrate to other parts of the body. Cells must be able to both secrete proteases that break down the basement membrane as well as migrate in order to be invasive. BD BioCoat Tumor Invasion System provides cells with conditions that allow assessment of their invasive property in vitro1,2. It consists of a BD Falcon FluoroBlok 24-Multiwell Insert Plate with an 8.0 micron pore size PET membrane that has been uniformly coated with BD Matrigel Matrix. This uniform layer of BD Matrigel Matrix serves as a reconstituted basement membrane in vitro providing a true barrier to non-invasive cells while presenting an appropriate protein structure to study invasion. The coating process occludes the pores of the membrane, blocking non-invasive cells from migrating through the membrane. In contrast, invasive cells are able to detach themselves from and migrate through the coated membrane. Quantitation of cell invasion can be achieved by either pre- or post-cell invasion labeling with a fluorescent dye such as DiIC12(3) or calcein AM, respectively, and measuring the fluorescence of invading cells. Since the BD FluoroBlok membrane effectively blocks the passage of light from 490-700 nm at &gt;99% efficiency, fluorescently-labeled cells that have not invaded are not detected by a bottom-reading fluorescence plate reader. However, cells that have invaded to the underside of the membrane are no longer shielded from the light source and are detected with the respective plate reader. This video demonstrates an endpoint cell invasion assay, using calcein AM to detect invaded cells.

An In vitro FluoroBlok Tumor Invasion Assay

This video demonstrates how to measure cell invasion through cell culture inserts using a fluorescence-based methodology.

The hallmark of metastatic cells is their ability to invade through the basement membrane and migrate to other parts of the body. Cells must be able to ...

Application of Stopped-flow Kinetics Methods to Investigate the Mechanism of Action of a DNA Repair Protein

Transient kinetic analysis is indispensable for understanding the workings of biological macromolecules, since this approach yields mechanistic information including active site concentrations and intrinsic rate constants that govern macromolecular function. In case of enzymes, for example, transient or pre-steady state measurements identify and characterize individual events in the reaction pathway, whereas steady state measurements only yield overall catalytic efficiency and specificity. Individual events such as protein-protein or protein-ligand interactions and rate-limiting conformational changes often occur in the millisecond timescale, and can be measured directly by stopped-flow and chemical-quench flow methods. Given an optical signal such as fluorescence, stopped-flow serves as a powerful and accessible tool for monitoring reaction progress from substrate binding to product release and catalytic turnover1,2.
Here, we report application of stopped-flow kinetics to probe the mechanism of action of Msh2-Msh6, a eukaryotic DNA repair protein that recognizes base-pair mismatches and insertion/deletion loops in DNA and signals mismatch repair (MMR)3-5. In doing so, Msh2-Msh6 increases the accuracy of DNA replication by three orders of magnitude (error frequency decreases from ~10-6 to10-9 bases), and thus helps preserve genomic integrity. Not surprisingly, defective human Msh2-Msh6 function is associated with hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer and other sporadic cancers6-8. In order to understand the mechanism of action of this critical DNA metabolic protein, we are probing the dynamics of Msh2-Msh6 interaction with mismatched DNA as well as the ATPase activity that fuels its actions in MMR. DNA binding is measured by rapidly mixing Msh2-Msh6 with DNA containing a 2-aminopurine (2-Ap) fluorophore adjacent to a G:T mismatch and monitoring the resulting increase in 2-aminopurine fluorescence in real time. DNA dissociation is measured by mixing pre-formed Msh2-Msh6 G:T(2-Ap) mismatch complex with unlabeled trap DNA and monitoring decrease in fluorescence over time9. Pre-steady state ATPase kinetics are measured by the change in fluorescence of 7-diethylamino-3-((((2-maleimidyl)ethyl)amino)carbonyl) coumarin)-labeled Phosphate Binding Protein (MDCC-PBP) on binding phosphate (Pi) released by Msh2-Msh6 following ATP hydrolysis9,10.
The data reveal rapid binding of Msh2-Msh6 to a G:T mismatch and formation of a long-lived Msh2-Msh6 G:T complex, which in turn results in suppression of ATP hydrolysis and stabilization of the protein in an ATP-bound form. The reaction kinetics provide clear support for the hypothesis that ATP-bound Msh2-Msh6 signals DNA repair on binding a mismatched base pair in the double helix.
F. Noah Biro and Jie Zhai contributed to this paper equally.

Msh2-Msh6 is responsible for initiating repair of replication errors in DNA. Here we present a transient kinetics approach towards understanding how this critical protein works. The report illustrates stopped-flow experiments for measuring the coupled DNA binding and ATPase kinetics underlying Msh2-Msh6 mechanism of action in DNA repair.

Transient kinetic analysis is indispensable for understanding the workings of biological macromolecules, since this approach yields mechanistic ...

Biophysical Assays to Probe the Mechanical Properties of the Interphase Cell Nucleus: Substrate Strain Application and Microneedle Manipulation

In most eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is the largest organelle and is typically 2 to 10 times stiffer than the surrounding cytoskeleton; consequently, the physical properties of the nucleus contribute significantly to the overall biomechanical behavior of cells under physiological and pathological conditions. For example, in migrating neutrophils and invading cancer cells, nuclear stiffness can pose a major obstacle during extravasation or passage through narrow spaces within tissues.1 On the other hand, the nucleus of cells in mechanically active tissue such as muscle requires sufficient structural support to withstand repetitive mechanical stress. Importantly, the nucleus is tightly integrated into the cellular architecture; it is physically connected to the surrounding cytoskeleton, which is a critical requirement for the intracellular movement and positioning of the nucleus, for example, in polarized cells, synaptic nuclei at neuromuscular junctions, or in migrating cells.2 Not surprisingly, mutations in nuclear envelope proteins such as lamins and nesprins, which play a critical role in determining nuclear stiffness and nucleo-cytoskeletal coupling, have been shown recently to result in a number of human diseases, including Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, and dilated cardiomyopathy.3 To investigate the biophysical function of diverse nuclear envelope proteins and the effect of specific mutations, we have developed experimental methods to study the physical properties of the nucleus in single, living cells subjected to global or localized mechanical perturbation. Measuring induced nuclear deformations in response to precisely applied substrate strain application yields important information on the deformability of the nucleus and allows quantitative comparison between different mutations or cell lines deficient for specific nuclear envelope proteins. Localized cytoskeletal strain application with a microneedle is used to complement this assay and can yield additional information on intracellular force transmission between the nucleus and the cytoskeleton. Studying nuclear mechanics in intact living cells preserves the normal intracellular architecture and avoids potential artifacts that can arise when working with isolated nuclei. Furthermore, substrate strain application presents a good model for the physiological stress experienced by cells in muscle or other tissues (e.g., vascular smooth muscle cells exposed to vessel strain). Lastly, while these tools have been developed primarily to study nuclear mechanics, they can also be applied to investigate the function of cytoskeletal proteins and mechanotransduction signaling.

We present two independent, microscope-based tools to measure the induced nuclear and cytoskeletal deformations in single, living adherent cells in response to global or localized strain application. These techniques are used to determine nuclear stiffness (i.e., deformability) and to probe intracellular force transmission between the nucleus and the cytoskeleton.

In most eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is the largest organelle and is typically 2 to 10 times stiffer than the surrounding cytoskeleton; consequently, the ...

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

Our research activities target the use of biological methods for the evaluation of environmental quality, with particular reference to saltwater/brackish water and sediment. The choice of biological indicators must be based on reliable scientific knowledge and, possibly, on the availability of standardized procedures. In this article, we present a standardized protocol that used the marine crustacean Artemia to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals and/or of marine environmental matrices. Scientists propose that the brine shrimp (Artemia) is a suitable candidate for the development of a standard bioassay for worldwide utilization. A number of papers have been published on the toxic effects of various chemicals and toxicants on brine shrimp (Artemia). The major advantage of this crustacean for toxicity studies is the overall availability of the dry cysts; these can be immediately used in testing and difficult cultivation is not demanded1,2. Cyst-based toxicity assays are cheap, continuously available, simple and reliable and are thus an important answer to routine needs of toxicity screening, for industrial monitoring requirements or for regulatory purposes3. The proposed method involves the mortality as an endpoint. The numbers of survivors were counted and percentage of deaths were calculated. Larvae were considered dead if they did not exhibit any internal or external movement during several seconds of observation4. This procedure was standardized testing a reference substance (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate); some results are reported in this work. This article accompanies a video that describes the performance of procedural toxicity testing, showing all the steps related to the protocol.

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

This study concerns the development and standardization of a valuable methodological protocol to determine long-term (14 days) lethal toxicity exerted by chemical substances, industrial wastewater or sewage and liquid environmental samples on the saltwater crustacean, Artemia franciscana.

Our research activities target the use of biological methods for the evaluation of environmental quality, with particular reference to saltwater/brackish ...

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified and/or determined via proteomic approaches, and/or immunoblotting with methyl-arginine specific antibodies. However, these techniques sometimes can be misleading and often provide false positive results. Most importantly, these techniques cannot provide direct evidence in support of the PRMT substrate specificity. In vitro methylation assays, on the other hand, are useful biochemical assays, which are sensitive, and consistently reveal if the identified proteins are indeed PRMT substrates. A typical in vitro methylation assay includes purified, active PRMTs, purified substrate and a radioisotope labeled methyl donor (S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine). Here we describe a step-by-step protocol to isolate catalytically active PRMT1, a ubiquitously expressed PRMT family member. The methyl transferase activities of the purified PRMT1 were later tested on Ras-GTPase activating protein binding protein 1 (G3BP1), a known PRMT substrate, in the presence of S-adenosyl-L-[methyl-3H] methionine as the methyl donor. This protocol can be employed not only for establishing the methylation status of novel physiological PRMT1 substrates, but also for understanding the basic mechanism of protein arginine methylation.

In vitro Methylation Assay to Study Protein Arginine Methylation

Protein arginine methylation, catalyzed by a class of enzymes viz., protein arginine methyl transferases (PRMTs), is the process of enzymatic addition of methyl group(s) to arginines within proteins. The in vitro methylation assay is the most dependable tool for assessing the methylation status of known or novel PRMT substrates.

Protein arginine methylation is one of the most abundant post-translational modifications in the nucleus. Protein arginine methylation can be identified ...

Comet Assay as an Indirect Measure of Systemic Oxidative Stress

Higher eukaryotic organisms cannot live without oxygen; yet, paradoxically, oxygen can be harmful to them. The oxygen molecule is chemically relatively inert because it has two unpaired electrons located in different pi * anti-bonding orbitals. These two electrons have parallel spins, meaning they rotate in the same direction about their own axes. This is why the oxygen molecule is not very reactive. Activation of oxygen may occur by two different mechanisms; either through reduction via one electron at a time (monovalent reduction), or through the absorption of sufficient energy to reverse the spin of one of the unpaired electrons. This results in the production of reactive oxidative species (ROS). There are a number of ways in which the human body eliminates ROS in its physiological state. If ROS production exceeds the repair capacity, oxidative stress results and damages different molecules. There are many different methods by which oxidative stress can be measured. This manuscript focuses on one of the methods named cell gel electrophoresis, also known as &#8220;comet assay&#8221; which allows measurement of DNA breaks. If all factors known to cause DNA damage, other than oxidative stress are kept constant, the amount of DNA damage measured by comet assay is a good parameter of oxidative stress. The principle is simple and relies upon the fact that DNA molecules are negatively charged. An intact DNA molecule has such a large size that it does not migrate during electrophoresis. DNA breaks, however, if present result in smaller fragments which move in the electrical field towards the anode. Smaller fragments migrate faster. As the fragments have different sizes the final result of the electrophoresis is not a distinct line but rather a continuum with the shape of a comet. The system allows a quantification of the resulting &#8220;comet&#8221; and thus of the DNA breaks in the cell.

Comet assay measures DNA breaks, induced by different factors. If all factors (except oxidative stress) causing DNA damage are kept constant, the amount of DNA damage is a good indirect parameter of oxidative stress. The goal of this protocol is to use comet assay for indirect measurement of oxidative stress.

Higher eukaryotic organisms cannot live without oxygen; yet, paradoxically, oxygen can be harmful to them. The oxygen molecule is chemically relatively ...

Measuring DNA Damage and Repair in Mouse Splenocytes After Chronic In Vivo Exposure to Very Low Doses of Beta- and Gamma-Radiation

Low dose radiation exposure may produce a variety of biological effects that are different in quantity and quality from the effects produced by high radiation doses. Addressing questions related to environmental, occupational and public health safety in a proper and scientifically justified manner heavily relies on the ability to accurately measure the biological effects of low dose pollutants, such as ionizing radiation and chemical substances. DNA damage and repair are the most important early indicators of health risks due to their potential long term consequences, such as cancer. Here we describe a protocol to study the effect of chronic in vivo exposure to low doses of &#947;- and &#946;-radiation on DNA damage and repair in mouse spleen cells. Using a commonly accepted marker of DNA double-strand breaks, phosphorylated histone H2AX called &#947;H2AX, we demonstrate how it can be used to evaluate not only the levels of DNA damage, but also changes in the DNA repair capacity potentially produced by low dose in vivo exposures. Flow cytometry allows fast, accurate and reliable measurement of immunofluorescently labeled &#947;H2AX in a large number of samples. DNA double-strand break repair can be evaluated by exposing extracted splenocytes to a challenging dose of 2 Gy to produce a sufficient number of DNA breaks to trigger repair and by measuring the induced (1 hr post-irradiation) and residual DNA damage (24 hrs post-irradiation). Residual DNA damage would be indicative of incomplete repair and the risk of long-term genomic instability and cancer. Combined with other assays and end-points that can easily be measured in such in vivo studies (e.g., chromosomal aberrations, micronuclei frequencies in bone marrow reticulocytes, gene expression, etc.), this approach allows an accurate and contextual evaluation of the biological effects of low level stressors.

Measuring DNA Damage and Repair in Mouse Splenocytes After Chronic In Vivo Exposure to Very Low Doses of Beta- and Gamma-Radiation

A protocol to evaluate changes in DNA damage levels and DNA repair capacity that may be induced by chronic in vivo low dose irradiation in mouse spleen lymphocytes, by measuring phosphorylated histone H2AX, a marker of DNA double-strand breaks, using flow cytometry is presented.

Low dose radiation exposure may produce a variety of biological effects that are different in quantity and quality from the effects produced by high ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and silencing of genes mediate the response of plants to environmental signals and developmental cues. Therefore, insights into the mechanisms that control plant gene expression are essential to gain a deep understanding of how biological processes are regulated in plants. The chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technique described here is a procedure to identify the DNA-binding sites of proteins in genes or genomic regions of the model species Arabidopsis thaliana. The interactions with DNA of proteins of interest such as transcription factors, chromatin proteins or posttranslationally modified versions of histones can be efficiently analyzed with the ChIP protocol. This method is based on the fixation of protein-DNA interactions in vivo, random fragmentation of chromatin, immunoprecipitation of protein-DNA complexes with specific antibodies, and quantification of the DNA associated with the protein of interest by PCR techniques. The use of this methodology in Arabidopsis has contributed significantly to unveil transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that control a variety of plant biological processes. This approach allowed the identification of the binding sites of the Arabidopsis chromatin protein EBS to regulatory regions of the master gene of flowering FT. The impact of this protein in the accumulation of particular histone marks in the genomic region of FT was also revealed through ChIP analysis.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Chromatin immunoprecipitation is a powerful technique for the identification of DNA binding sites of Arabidopsis proteins in vivo. This procedure includes chromatin cross-linking and fragmentation, immunoprecipitation with selective antibodies against the protein of interest, and qPCR analysis of bound DNA. We describe a simple ChIP assay optimized for Arabidopsis plants.

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and ...

The Assembly and Application of 'Shear Rings': A Novel Endothelial Model for Orbital, Unidirectional and Periodic Fluid Flow and Shear Stress

Deviations from normal levels and patterns of vascular fluid shear play important roles in vascular physiology and pathophysiology by inducing adaptive as well as pathological changes in endothelial phenotype and gene expression. In particular, maladaptive effects of periodic, unidirectional flow induced shear stress can trigger a variety of effects on several vascular cell types, particularly endothelial cells. While by now endothelial cells from diverse anatomic origins have been cultured, in-depth analyses of their responses to fluid shear have been hampered by the relative complexity of shear models (e.g., parallel plate flow chamber, cone and plate flow model). While these all represent excellent approaches, such models are technically complicated and suffer from drawbacks including relatively lengthy and complex setup time, low surface areas, requirements for pumps and pressurization often requiring sealants and gaskets, creating challenges to both maintenance of sterility and an inability to run multiple experiments. However, if higher throughput models of flow and shear were available, greater progress on vascular endothelial shear responses, particularly periodic shear research at the molecular level, might be more rapidly advanced. Here, we describe the construction and use of shear rings: a novel, simple-to-assemble, and inexpensive tissue culture model with a relatively large surface area that easily allows for a high number of experimental replicates in unidirectional, periodic shear stress studies on endothelial cells.

The Assembly and Application of &#039;Shear Rings&#039;: A Novel Endothelial Model for Orbital, Unidirectional and Periodic Fluid Flow and Shear Stress

Different levels and patterns of fluid shear are known to modulate endothelial gene expression, phenotype and susceptibility to disease. We discuss the assembly and use of 'shear rings': a model that produces unidirectional, periodic shear stress patterns. Shear rings are simple to assemble, economical and can produce high cell yields.

Deviations from normal levels and patterns of vascular fluid shear play important roles in vascular physiology and pathophysiology by inducing adaptive as ...

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

A method for observing and quantifying the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, was established under a stereomicroscope. To improve the mating efficiency of B. Xylophilus and to increase the chances of mating observation, virgin adults were cultured and used for the investigation. Eggs were obtained by keeping the nematodes in water and allowing the females to lay eggs for 10 min. The second-stage juveniles (J2) were synchronized by incubating the eggs for 24 h at 25 &#176;C in the dark, and the early J4 were obtained by culturing the J2 with grey mold, Botrytis cinerea, for another 52 h. At this time point, most J4 nematodes could be clearly distinguished as being male or female using their genital morphology. The male and female J4 were collected and cultured separately in two different Petri dishes for 24 h to get virgin adult nematodes. A virgin male and a virgin female were paired in a drop of water in the well of a concave slide. The mating behavior was filmed with a video recorder under a stereomicroscope. The whole period of the mating process was 82.8 &#177;3.91 min (mean &#177;SE) and could be divided into 4 different phases: searching, contacting, copulating, and lingering. The mean minutes of duration were 21.8 &#177; 2.0, 28.0 &#177; 1.9, 25.8 &#177; 0.7 and 7.2 &#177; 0.5, respectively. Eleven sub-behaviors were described: cruising, approaching, encountering, touching, hooping, locating, attaching, ejaculating, separating, quiescence, and roaming. Interestingly, obvious intra-sexual competition was observed when one female was grouped with 3 males or one male with 3 females. This protocol is useful and valuable, not only in investigating the mating behavior of B. xylophilus, but also in acting as a reference for ethological studies of other nematodes.

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

A protocol for investigating the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is presented. Behavioral features of B. xylophilus are described in the mating process.

A method for observing and quantifying the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, was established under a stereomicroscope. ...