The EmoCogMeter was developed in cooperation with MicroMovie Media GmbH (http://www.micromovie.com).

1. Subjects
We recruited five hundred and forty-one psychologically and somatically healthy male and female subjects (age 44.47&#177; 9.41; range 18-89 years; IQ 113.90&#177;12.73). All subjects spoke German on a native speaker level. The study was carried out in accordance with the latest version of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the German Psychological Society. All subjects gave written informed consent before screening and were reimbursed for participation.
2. Study Design
The EmoCogMeter, an iPad-based application, includes 7 neuropsychological tests and was developed to investigate cognitive functions in several domains. Prior to each test, a short instruction and demonstration was displayed on the screen. There was no verbal instruction or feedback from the experimenter. Subjects needed approximately 25-30 min to complete the testing session.
<ol>
	<li>Neuropsychological Tests
	<ol>
		<li>Learning and memory
		<ol>
			<li>Memory Span 
			Present the participants with a series of digits and ask them to input the numbers immediately afterwards. Start with 2 digits and if participants are successful, give a longer list of numbers.
			<ol>
				<li>End the task either after 5 min, or earlier, if subjects successfully recall 9 digits. Record the digit span and the number of total trials required to reach that level.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Working Memory 
			Have participants view sequences of positive, negative and neutral words and respond if a word is the same as the one presented two trials before.
			<ol>
				<li>End the task after 5 min and record the number of correct responses (hits), false responses, and the mean latency of responses.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Attention and concentration
		<ol>
			<li>Selective Attention 
			Apply a variant of the Stroop task and ask subjects to respond if the written color name corresponds to the color ink it was displayed in.
			<ol>
				<li>End the task after 3 min and record the number of correct responses (hits), false responses, missed responses, and the mean latency of responses.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Sustained Attention 
			Use a task that includes a small working memory component. Present a circle consisting of small blue and yellow circles, illuminated in a pseudo-random order in the center of the screen.
			<ol>
				<li>Instruct subjects to detect and respond to sequences of blue-yellow-yellow. End the task after 4 min and record the number of correct responses (hits), false responses, and missed responses.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Executive Functions
		<ol>
			<li>Trail Making Test B 
			Probe task switching and require subjects to sequentially and alternatively connect 13 numbers and 12 letters on the screen. Do not display the connection if the subject made an error and do not continue the task before the correct connection is selected.
			<ol>
				<li>End the task after 90 sec if it is not successfully completed until then. Record the total time required to complete the task.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Tower of Hanoi 
			Assess planning and the ability to achieve a goal through a series of intermediate steps. Use a version with three rods and four discs of subsequently smaller size.
			<ol>
				<li>Inform subjects that they have to move the entire stack of discs to another rod by obeying the following rules: (1) Only one disk may be moved at a time. (2) Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, on top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod. (3) No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.</li>
				<li>End the test if subjects fail to reach the goal after 4 min. Record the time needed to solve the task and the number of moves required for solution.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Processing Speed 
		Symbol Letter Modalities Test 
		Present subjects with 9 letters and corresponding geometric symbols in the upper part of the screen. Display rows of letters in the lower part and instruct subjects to move the corresponding symbol under each letter as fast as possible.
		<ol>
			<li>Record the number of correct responses (hits), false responses, missed responses and the mean latency of responses within the allowed time (90 sec).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Statistical analysis 
	For the tests probing working memory, selective attention and sustained attention we defined an accuracy ratio ((hits- false)/ targets) x 100. All data were analyzed using multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) with the between-subjects factors age group and gender. GreenhouseGeisser corrections were applied where appropriate. If MANOVAs revealed significant main or interaction effects, further statistical analyses were conducted using t-test comparisons.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>B&#228;ckman, L., Andersson, J. L., Nyberg, L., Winblad, B., Nordberg, A., Almkvist, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+regions+associated+with+episodic+retrieval+in+normal+aging+and+Alzheimer's+disease.">Brain regions associated with episodic retrieval in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurology. 52 (9), 1861-1870 (1999).</li><li>Brehmer, Y., Li, S. C., M&#252;ller, V., von Oertzen, T., Lindenberger, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+plasticity+across+the+life+span:+uncovering+children's+latent+potential.">Memory plasticity across the life span: uncovering children's latent potential.</a> Dev. Psychol. 43 (2), 465-478 (2007).</li><li>Shing, Y. L., Werkle-Bergner, M., Li, S. C., Lindenberger, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Associative+and+strategic+components+of+episodic+memory:+a+lifespan+dissociation.">Associative and strategic components of episodic memory: a lifespan dissociation.</a> J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 137 (3), 495-513 (2008).</li><li>West, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+application+of+prefrontal+cortex+function+theory+to+cognitive+aging.">An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging.</a> Psychol. Bull. 120 (2), 272-292 (1996).</li><li>Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., Head, D., Williamson, A., Dahle, C., Gerstorf, D., Acker, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regional+brain+changes+in+aging+healthy+adults:+general+trends,+individual+differences+and+modifiers.">Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers.</a> Cereb. Cortex. 15 (11), 1676-1689 (2005).</li><li>Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., Ghisletta, P., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., Acker, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroanatomical+correlates+of+fluid+intelligence+in+healthy+adults+and+persons+with+vascular+risk+factors.">Neuroanatomical correlates of fluid intelligence in healthy adults and persons with vascular risk factors.</a> Cereb. Cortex. 18 (3), 718-726 (2008).</li><li>Sander, M. C., Lindenberger, U., Werkle-Bergner, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lifespan+age+differences+in+working+memory:+a+two-component+framework.">Lifespan age differences in working memory: a two-component framework.</a> Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36 (9), 2007-2033 (2012).</li><li>Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+adaptive+brain:+aging+and+neurocognitive+scaffolding.">The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding.</a> Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 173-196 (2009).</li><li>B&#228;ckman, L., Ginovart, N., Dixon, R. A., Wahlin, T. B., Wahlin, A., Halldin, C., Farde, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-related+cognitive+deficits+mediated+by+changes+in+the+striatal+dopamine+system.">Age-related cognitive deficits mediated by changes in the striatal dopamine system.</a> Am. J. Psychiatry. 157 (4), 635-637 (2000).</li><li>B&#228;ckman, L., Nyberg, L., Lindenberger, U., Li, S. C., Farde, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+correlative+triad+among+aging,+dopamine,+and+cognition:+current+status+and+future+prospects.">The correlative triad among aging, dopamine, and cognition: current status and future prospects.</a> Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30 (6), 791-807 (2006).</li><li>Erixon-Lindroth, N., Farde, L., Wahlin, T. B., Sovago, J., Halldin, C., B&#228;ckman, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+the+striatal+dopamine+transporter+in+cognitive+aging.">The role of the striatal dopamine transporter in cognitive aging.</a> Psychiatry. Res. 30 (1), 1-12 (2005).</li><li>Volkow, N. D., Gur, R. C., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Moberg, P. J., Ding, Y. S., Hitzemann, R., Smith, G., Logan, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Association+between+decline+in+brain+dopamine+activity+with+age+and+cognitive+and+motor+impairment+in+healthy+individuals.">Association between decline in brain dopamine activity with age and cognitive and motor impairment in healthy individuals.</a> Am. J. Psychiatry. 155 (3), 344-349 (1998).</li><li>Charles, S. T., Mather, M., Carstensen, L. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aging+and+emotional+memory:+The+forgettable+nature+of+negative+images+for+older+adults.">Aging and emotional memory: The forgettable nature of negative images for older adults.</a> J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 132, 310-324 (2003).</li><li>Mather, M., Knight, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Goal-directed+memory:+the+role+of+cognitive+control+in+older+adults'+emotional+memory.">Goal-directed memory: the role of cognitive control in older adults' emotional memory.</a> Psychol. Aging. 20 (4), 554-570 (2005).</li><li>L&#246;ckenhoff, C. E., Carstensen, L. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aging,+emotion,+and+health-related+decision+strategies:+motivational+manipulations+can+reduce+age+differences.">Aging, emotion, and health-related decision strategies: motivational manipulations can reduce age differences.</a> Psychol. Aging. 22 (1), 134-146 (2007).</li><li>Gr&#252;hn, D., Scheibe, S., Baltes, P. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reduced+negativity+effect+in+older+adults'+memory+for+emotional+pictures:+the+heterogeneity-homogeneity+list+paradigm.">Reduced negativity effect in older adults' memory for emotional pictures: the heterogeneity-homogeneity list paradigm.</a> Psychol. Aging. 22 (3), 644-649 (2007).</li><li>Isaacowitz, D. M., Allard, E. S., Murphy, N. A., Schlangel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+time+course+of+age-related+preferences+toward+positive+and+negative.">The time course of age-related preferences toward positive and negative.</a> J. Gerontol. B. Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 64 (2), 188-192 (2009).</li><li>Carstensen, L. L., L&#246;ckenhoff, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aging,+emotion,+and+evolution:+the+bigger+picture.">Aging, emotion, and evolution: the bigger picture.</a> Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1000, 152-179 (2003).</li><li>Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emergence+of+a+powerful+connection+between+sensory+and+cognitive+functions+across+the+adult+life+span:+a+new+window+to+the+study+of+cognitive+aging.">Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: a new window to the study of cognitive aging.</a> Psychol. Aging. 12 (1), 12-21 (1997).</li><li>Craik, F. I., Rose, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+encoding+and+aging:+a+neurocognitive+perspective.">Memory encoding and aging: a neurocognitive perspective.</a> Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36 (7), 1729-1739 (2012).</li><li>Hayden, K. M., Reed, B. R., Manly, J. J., Tommet, D., Pietrzak, R. H., Chelune, G. J., Yang, F. M., Revell, A. J., Bennett, D. A., Jones, R. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cognitive+decline+in+the+elderly:+an+analysis+of+population+heterogeneity.">Cognitive decline in the elderly: an analysis of population heterogeneity.</a> Age. Ageing. 40 (6), 684-689 (2011).</li><li>Voyer, D., Voyer, S., Bryden, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnitude+of+sex+differences+in+spatial+abilities.+A+meta-analysis+and+consideration+of+critical+variables.">Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities. A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables.</a> Psychol. Bull. 117 (2), 250-270 (1995).</li><li>Finkel, D., Reynolds, C. A., McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Pedersen, N. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+variance+in+processing+speed+drives+variation+in+aging+of+spatial+and+memory.">Genetic variance in processing speed drives variation in aging of spatial and memory.</a> Dev. Psychol. 45 (3), 820-834 (2009).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer based application in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across lifespan. As hypothesized, subjects showed an age-related decline in most neuropsychological domains. For some cognitive functions, such as memory span, working memory accuracy, and selective attention, the decline appears to occur later in life, as it was only observed when comparing middle-aged and old subjects. Other cognitive functions, mainly response latenc...

Human aging is associated with cognitive decline in all domains, but might be particularly pronounced for functions associated with the prefrontal cortex and the medial temporal lobes, such as working memory (WM), episodic memory, and executive functions, (B&#228;ckman et al.1, Brehmer et al.2, Shing et al.3, West4). Correspondingly, brain-imaging studies showed that volume reductions are most prominent in prefrontal and mediotemporal areas (Raz et al.5,6) and that altered functioning within and between these regions might contribute to age-related cognitive changes (Sander et al.7, Park and Reuter-Lorenz8). Molecular imaging studies indicate that age-related dopamine losses might be powerful mediators of impairment in multiple cognitive tasks (B&#228;ckman et al.9,10; Erixon-Lindroth et al.11, Volkow et al.12). There is considerable evidence that perceptive and cognitive competencies in old age might be enhanced by emotional stimuli. The tendency for older adults to perform better on positively valenced stimuli with regard to measures of attention, recognition, and emotional memory enhancement has been termed the age-related positivity effect (Charles et al.13, Mather and Knight14, L&#246;ckenhoff and Carstensen15, Gr&#252;hn et al.16, Isaacowitz et al.17) and might reflect a difference in motivational goals as the end of life approaches (Carstensen and L&#246;ckenhoff18).
Neuropsychological testing of cognitive functions is usually conducted either by means of paper-and-pencil tests or computer-based tests on workstations, and might prove difficult when testing older subjects. Firstly, impaired motor skills might limit the use of paper-and-pencil tests and secondly, older subjects are often not familiar with keyboards, mouse pads, or other input devices applied during computer-based neuropsychological testing. As a result, older subjects often show poor motivation or compliance during neuropsychological testing, which might impair performance and decrease the validity of the findings. Furthermore, paper-and-pencil testing as well a computer-based testing on workstations requires permanent attendance of the experimenter for instruction and feedback as well as for documentation of results, which are then rarely transferred to a database and therefore only accessible to a very limited number of people. Thus, this &#34;conventional&#34; approach to neuropsychological testing ties up considerable human resources increases the probability of errors when transferring results, limits data access, and slows the workflow.
Our aim was to test a tablet-based application for the investigation of several neuropsychological domains. We used an iPad application as we hypothesized, that such a simple tool might be a quick and effective method to screen for and track cognitive deficits in clinical and outpatient settings. Regardless of age, subjects should be enabled to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter and should be able to complete the tests. Regardless of age, subjects should be enabled to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. We hypothesized, that the touchpad would allow for a more intuitive use than other response devices (e.g. mouse pad or keyboard) particularly for older subjects, who are not familiar with computers. Heightened compliance and motivation for task performance might increase validity of results, while benefits for the experimenter should include a standardized and time saving testing procedure, a secure transfer of test results to a database and facilitation of data storage and analysis.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="732">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Wortschatz-Test (WST)</td>
			<td style="width:231px;">http://www.testzentrale.de/programm/wortschatztest.html</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Assessment of Intelligence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Berlin Affective Word List (BAWL)</td>
			<td style="width:231px;">V&#245; et al., 2009</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Stimuli for working memory task</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Predictive Analysis SoftWare, version 18.0</td>
			<td style="width:231px;">SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Statistical Analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">iPad</td>
			<td style="width:231px;">http://www.apple.com/de</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EmoCogMeter</td>
			<td style="width:231px;">http://anem.charite.de/anem</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:231px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of age-related changes in cognitive functions using emocogmeter, a novel tablet-computer based approach

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognitive functions across the lifespan in a sample of 378 healthy subjects (age range 18-89 years). Consistent with previous findings we found an age-related cognitive decline across a wide range of neuropsychological domains (memory, attention, executive functions), thereby proving the usability of our tablet-based application. Regardless of prior computer experience, subjects of all age groups were able to perform the tasks without instruction or feedback from an experimenter. Increased motivation and compliance proved to be beneficial for task performance, thereby potentially increasing the validity of the results. Our promising findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

Data from 19 subjects could not be recorded due to technical problems. All remaining subjects (N= 522) completed the tests and were clustered into 3 age groups (young: 18-30 years; middle-aged: 31-59 years; old: 60-89 years). Participants in these groups were matched according to gender and IQ resulting in a sample size of N= 378 (see Table 1). Performance for all neuropsychological tests in the 3 age groups is summarized in Table 2.
Learning and memory</p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach at JoVE.com

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

assessment-age-related-changes-cognitive-functions-using-emocogmeter

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Developmental Psychology

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

13.5K Views.  Freie Universität Berlin. We tested the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on cognition. Results show an age-related cognitive decline, thereby proving the usability of our application. Findings underline the great clinical and practical potential of a tablet-based application for detection and monitoring of cognitive dysfunction.

Video: Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

Use of the Operant Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) to Measure Changes in Nociceptive Behavior

We present an operant system for the detection of pain in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) assesses pain behaviors in a more clinically relevant way by not relying on reflex-based measures of nociception. Food fasted, hairless (or shaved) rodents are placed into a Plexiglas chamber which has two Peltier-based thermodes that can be programmed to any temperature between 7 &deg;C and 60 &deg;C. The rodent is trained to make contact with these in order to access a reward bottle. During a session, a number of behavioral pain outcomes are automatically recorded and saved. These measures include the number of reward bottle activations (licks) and facial contact stimuli (face contacts), but custom measures like the lick/face ratio (total number of licks per session/total number of contacts) can also be created. The stimulus temperature can be set to a single temperature or multiple temperatures within a session. The OPAD is a high-throughput, easy to use operant assay which will lead to better translation of pain research in the future as it includes cortical input instead of relying on spinal reflex-based nociceptive assays.

Use of the Operant Orofacial Pain Assessment Device OPAD to Measure Changes in Nociceptive Behavior

We present a user-friendly, high-throughput operant system for the evaluation of pain behaviors in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) can assess pain through a reward/conflict paradigm thus providing a more humane way of testing. This protocol will yield more clinically relevant and translational data from rodents.

We present an operant  system for the detection of pain in awake, conscious rodents. The Orofacial  Pain Assessment Device (OPAD) assesses pain behaviors ...

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

Practical Methodology of Cognitive Tasks Within a Navigational Assessment

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be clearly outlined in a step-by-step manner. Navigational skills are important when trying to find symbols within a speech-generating device (SGD) that has a dynamic screen and taxonomical organization. The following skills have been found to impact children&#8217;s ability to find symbols when navigating within the levels of an SGD: sustained attention, categorization, cognitive flexibility, and fluid reasoning1,2. According to past studies, working memory was not correlated with navigation1,2.
The materials needed for this method include a computerized tablet, an augmentative and alternative communication application, a booklet of symbols, and the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R)3. This method has been used in two previous studies. Robillard, Mayer-Crittenden, Roy-Charland, Minor-Corriveau and B&#233;langer1 assessed typically developing children, while Rondeau, Robillard and Roy-Charland2 assessed children and adolescents with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. The direct observation of this method will facilitate the replication of this study for researchers. It will also help clinicians that work with children who have complex communication needs to determine the children&#8217;s ability to navigate an SGD with taxonomical categorization.

Children who have complex communication needs can benefit from the use of a speech-generating device (SGD). Cognitive skills were identified as having an impact on the ability to navigate between levels of SGDs. This protocol describes the steps needed for Speech-language Pathologists to assess cognitive skills and navigational abilities.

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be ...

Experimental Assessment of Mouse Sociability Using an Automated Image Processing Approach

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the test mouse is placed in a standardized apparatus and relevant behaviors are assessed in three different sessions (called session I, II, and III).
The apparatus has three compartments (see Figure 1), the left and right compartments contain an inverted cup which can house a mouse (called &#34;stimulus mouse&#34;).
In session I, the test mouse is placed in the cage and its mobility is characterized by the number of transitions made between compartments. In session II, a stimulus mouse is placed under one of the inverted cups and the sociability of the test mouse is quantified by the amounts of time it spends near the cup containing the enclosed stimulus mouse vs. the empty inverted cup. In session III, the inverted cups are removed and both mice interact freely. The sociability of the test mouse in session III is quantified by the number of social approaches it makes toward the stimulus mouse and by the number of times it avoids a social approach by the stimulus mouse.
The automated evaluation of the movie detects the nose of the test mouse, which allows the determination of all described sociability measures in session I and II (in session III, approaches are identified automatically but classified manually). To find the nose, the image of an empty cage is digitally subtracted from each frame of the movie and the resulting image is binarized to identify the mouse pixels. The mouse tail is automatically removed and the two most distant points of the remaining mouse are determined; these are close to nose and base of tail. By analyzing the motion of the mouse and using continuity arguments, the nose is identified.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52508/52508fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Assessment of Sociability During 3 sessions. Session I (top): Acclimation of test mouse to the cage. Session II (middle): Test mouse moving freely in the cage while the stimulus mouse is enclosed in an inverted cup. Session III (bottom): Both test mouse and stimulus mouse are allowed to move freely and interact with each other.

This protocol describes a method to quantify mouse sociability. Mice are videotaped as they move and interact in a special cage. Movie processing allows for the automated quantification of sociability with excellent accuracy and reliability.

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the ...

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device (ALDM) Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys maintained in semi-free ranging conditions. Data accumulated during the last five years have consistently demonstrated the efficiency of this protocol to investigate individual/physical cognition in monkeys, and have further shown that this procedure reduces stress level during animal testing3. This paper demonstrates that networks of ALDM can also be used to investigate different facets of social cognition and in-group expressed behaviors in monkeys, and describes three illustrative protocols developed for that purpose. The first study demonstrates how ethological assessments of social behavior and computerized assessments of cognitive performance could be integrated to investigate the effects of socially exhibited moods on the cognitive performance of individuals. The second study shows that batteries of ALDM running in parallel can provide unique information on the influence of the presence of others on task performance. Finally, the last study shows that networks of ALDM test units can also be used to study issues related to social transmission and cultural evolution. Combined together, these three studies demonstrate clearly that ALDM testing is a highly promising experimental tool for bridging the gap in the animal literature between research on individual cognition and research on social cognition.

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device ALDM Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) aimed at testing individual cognitive abilities in semi-free ranging monkeys. The main goal of our protocol is to use a network of ALDM test units to study social cognition in non-human primates.

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys ...

Combined Invasive Subcortical and Non-invasive Surface Neurophysiological Recordings for the Assessment of Cognitive and Emotional Functions in Humans

In spite of the success in applying non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG), magneto-encephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) for extracting crucial information about the mechanism of the human brain, such methods remain insufficient to provide information about physiological processes reflecting cognitive and emotional functions at the subcortical level. In this respect, modern invasive clinical approaches in humans, such as deep brain stimulation (DBS), offer a tremendous possibility to record subcortical brain activity, namely local field potentials (LFPs) representing coherent activity of neural assemblies from localized basal ganglia or thalamic regions. Notwithstanding the fact that invasive approaches in humans are applied only after medical indication and thus recorded data correspond to altered brain circuits, valuable insight can be gained regarding the presence of intact brain functions in relation to brain oscillatory activity and the pathophysiology of disorders in response to experimental cognitive paradigms. In this direction, a growing number of DBS studies in patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) target not only motor functions but also higher level processes such as emotions, decision-making, attention, memory and sensory perception. Recent clinical trials also emphasize the role of DBS as an alternative treatment in neuropsychiatric disorders ranging from obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) to chronic disorders of consciousness (DOC). Consequently, we focus on the use of combined invasive (LFP) and non-invasive (EEG) human brain recordings in assessing the role of cortical-subcortical structures in cognitive and emotional processing trough experimental paradigms (e.g. speech stimuli with emotional connotation or paradigms of cognitive control such as the Flanker task), for patients undergoing DBS treatment.

The present protocol aims at assessing cognitive-emotional functions in the basal ganglia by simultaneous neurophysiological recording of local field potentials and non-invasive brain cortical activity (EEG). The procedure is exemplified by the use of paradigms involving speech stimuli with emotional connotation or the Flanker task involving cognitive control.

In spite of the success in applying non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG), magneto-encephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ...

A Method for Manipulating Blood Glucose and Measuring Resulting Changes in Cognitive Accessibility of Target Stimuli

Much research in social psychology has investigated the impact of bodily energy need on cognition and decision-making. As such, blood glucose, the body's primary energy source, has been of special interest to researchers for years. Fluctuations in blood glucose have been linked to a variety of changes in cognitive and behavioral processes, such as self-control, political attitudes, and eating behavior. To help meet growing interest in the links between bodily energy need and these processes, this manuscript offers a simple methodology to experimentally manipulate blood glucose using a fasting procedure followed by administration of a sugar-sweetened, unsweetened, or artificially-sweetened beverage. This is followed by presentation of a method for measuring resulting changes in implicit cognition using a lexical decision-task. In this task, participants are asked to identify whether strings of letters are words or non-words and response latencies are recorded. Sample results from a recent publication are presented as an example of the applications for the experimental manipulation of blood glucose and the lexical decision task measures.

The authors introduce a method for manipulating blood glucose and measuring resulting changes in cognitive accessibility of target words using a lexical decision task.

Much research in social psychology has investigated the impact of bodily energy need on cognition and decision-making.  As such, blood glucose, the body's ...

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

Behavioral Assessment of Hearing in 2 to 4 Year-old Children: A Two-interval, Observer-based Procedure Using Conditioned Play-based Responses

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human auditory development for these age groups. This paper describes an observer-based procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity with a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm. Young children are trained to perform a play-based, motor response (e.g., putting a block in a bucket) whenever they hear a target signal. An experimenter observes the child&#39;s behavior and makes a judgment about whether the signal was presented during the first or second observation interval; the experimenter is blinded to the true signal interval, so this judgment is based solely on the child&#39;s behavior. These procedures were used to test 2 to 4 year-olds (n = 33) with no known hearing problems. The signal was a 1,000 Hz warble tone presented in quiet, and the signal level was adjusted to estimate a threshold corresponding to 71%-correct detection. A valid threshold was obtained for 82% of children. These results indicate that the two-interval procedure is both feasible and reliable for use with toddlers and preschoolers. The two-interval, observer-based procedure described in this paper is a powerful tool for evaluating hearing in young children because it guards against response bias on the part of the experimenter.

This paper describes a procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity in 2 to 4 year-old children. Children are trained to perform play-based responses when they hear a target signal. Thresholds are then estimated in a two-interval, two-alternative forced-choice paradigm, based on observations of the child&#39;s behaviors.

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human ...