Name: fabrication and testing of microfluidic optomechanical oscillators
Uploaded: 2014-05-29T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators at JoVE.com

This work was funded by Startup funding from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, DARPA ORCHID program through a grant from AFOSR, the National Science Foundation through grant CMMI-1265164, and the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship program. We acknowledge enlightening discussions with Prof. Jack Harris, Prof. Pierre Meystre, Dr. Matt Eichenfield, Prof. Taher Saif, and Prof. Rashid Bashir.

1. Fabrication of Ultra-high-Q Microfluidic Resonators
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of capillary manufacturing setup
	<ol>
		<li>Fabricate the microfluidic optomechanical resonator in the following way &#8211; Heat a glass capillary preform with approximately 10 W of CO2 laser radiation at 10.6 microns wavelength, and draw out the heated capillary linearly using motorized translation stages. Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the linear translation stages, the lasers, and the location of the capilla...

<ol>
	<li>Carmon, T., Rokhsari, H., Yang, L., Kippenberg, T., Vahala, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+Behavior+of+Radiation-Pressure-Induced+Vibrations+of+an+Optical+Microcavity+Phonon+Mode.">Temporal Behavior of Radiation-Pressure-Induced Vibrations of an Optical Microcavity Phonon Mode.</a> Physical Review Letters. 94 (22), (2005).</li><li>Rokhsari, H., Kippenberg, T., Carmon, T., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Radiation-pressure-driven+micro-mechanical+oscillator.">Radiation-pressure-driven micro-mechanical oscillator.</a> Optics Express. 13 (14), 5293-5301 (2005).</li><li>Kippenberg, T. J., Rokhsari, H., Carmon, T., Scherer, A., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+Radiation-Pressure+Induced+Mechanical+Oscillation+of+an+Optical+Microcavity.">Analysis of Radiation-Pressure Induced Mechanical Oscillation of an Optical Microcavity.</a> Physical Review Letters. 95 (3), 033901 (2005).</li><li>Tomes, M., Carmon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photonic+Micro-Electromechanical+Systems+Vibrating+at+X-band+(11-GHz)+Rates.">Photonic Micro-Electromechanical Systems Vibrating at X-band (11-GHz) Rates.</a> Physical Review Letters. 102 (11), (2009).</li><li>Grudinin, I. S., Matsko, A. B., Maleki, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brillouin+lasing+with+a+CaF2+whispering+gallery+mode+resonator.">Brillouin lasing with a CaF2 whispering gallery mode resonator.</a> Physical Review Letters. 102 (4), 043902 (2009).</li><li>Bahl, G., Zehnpfennig, J., Tomes, M., Carmon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stimulated+optomechanical+excitation+of+surface+acoustic+waves+in+a+microdevice.">Stimulated optomechanical excitation of surface acoustic waves in a microdevice.</a> Nature Communications. 2 (403), (2011).</li><li>Dainese, P., Russell, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stimulated+Brillouin+scattering+from+multi-GHz-guided+acoustic+phonons+in+nanostructured+photonic+crystal+fibres.">Stimulated Brillouin scattering from multi-GHz-guided acoustic phonons in nanostructured photonic crystal fibres.</a> Nature Physics. 2 (6), 388-392 (2006).</li><li>Carmon, T., Cross, M. C., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chaotic+Quivering+of+Micron-Scaled+On-Chip+Resonators+Excited+by+Centrifugal+Optical+Pressure.">Chaotic Quivering of Micron-Scaled On-Chip Resonators Excited by Centrifugal Optical Pressure.</a> Physical Review Letters. 98 (16), 167-203 (2007).</li><li>Armani, D., Min, B., Martin, A., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrical+thermo-optic+tuning+of+ultrahigh-Q+microtoroid+resonators.">Electrical thermo-optic tuning of ultrahigh-Q microtoroid resonators.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 85 (22), 5439-5441 (2004).</li><li>Savchenkov, A. A., Matsko, A. B., Ilchenko, V. S., Seidel, D., Maleki, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+acoustic+wave+opto-mechanical+oscillator+and+frequency+comb+generator.">Surface acoustic wave opto-mechanical oscillator and frequency comb generator.</a> Optics Letters. 36 (17), 3338-3340 (2011).</li><li>Bahl, G., Tomes, M., Marquardt, F., Carmon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observation+of+spontaneous+Brillouin+cooling.">Observation of spontaneous Brillouin cooling.</a> Nature Physics. 8 (3), 203-207 (2012).</li><li>Bahl, G., Kim, K. H., Lee, W., Liu, J., Fan, X., Carmon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brillouin+cavity+optomechanics+with+microfluidic+devices.">Brillouin cavity optomechanics with microfluidic devices.</a> Nature Communications. 4 (1994), (1994).</li><li>Kim, K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cavity+optomechanics+on+a+microfluidic+resonator+with+water+and+viscous+liquids.">Cavity optomechanics on a microfluidic resonator with water and viscous liquids.</a> Light: Science and Applications. , (2013).</li><li>Sumetsky, M., Dulashko, Y., Windeler, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+microbubble+resonator.">Optical microbubble resonator.</a> Optics Letters. 35 (7), 898-900 (2010).</li><li>Lee, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+quasi-droplet+optofluidic+ring+resonator+laser+using+a+micro-bubble.">A quasi-droplet optofluidic ring resonator laser using a micro-bubble.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 99 (9), 091102-091103 (2011).</li><li>Junge, C., Nickel, S., O&#8217;Shea, D., Rauschenbeutel, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bottle+microresonator+with+actively+stabilized+evanescent+coupling.">Bottle microresonator with actively stabilized evanescent coupling.</a> Optics Letters. 36 (17), 3488-3490 (2011).</li><li>Bahl, G., Fan, X., Carmon, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+whispering-gallery+modes+in+optomechanical+shells.">Acoustic whispering-gallery modes in optomechanical shells.</a> New Journal of Physics. 14 (11), 115026 (2012).</li><li>Cai, M., Painter, O., Vahala, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observation+of+Critical+Coupling+in+a+Fiber+Taper+to+a+Silica-Microsphere+Whispering-Gallery+Mode+System.">Observation of Critical Coupling in a Fiber Taper to a Silica-Microsphere Whispering-Gallery Mode System.</a> Physical Review Letters. 85 (1), 74-77 (2000).</li><li>Burg, T. P., Manalis, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Suspended+microchannel+resonators+for+biomolecular+detection.">Suspended microchannel resonators for biomolecular detection.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 83 (13), 2698-2610 (2003).</li><li>Burg, T. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Weighing+of+biomolecules,+single+cells+and+single+nanoparticles+in+fluid.">Weighing of biomolecules, single cells and single nanoparticles in fluid.</a> Nature. 446 (7139), 1066-1069 (2007).</li><li>Li, J., Lee, H., Chen, T., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+high+coherence,+Brillouin+microcavity+laser+on+silicon.">Characterization of a high coherence, Brillouin microcavity laser on silicon.</a> Optics Express. 20 (18), (2012).</li><li>Knight, J. C., Cheung, G., Jacques, F., Birks, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase-matched+excitation+of+whispering-gallery-mode+resonances+by+a+fiber+taper.">Phase-matched excitation of whispering-gallery-mode resonances by a fiber taper.</a> Opt. Lett. 22 (15), 1129-1131 (1997).</li><li>Boyd, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nonlinear Optics. , (2003).</li><li>Li, J., Lee, H., Vahala, K. 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We have fabricated and tested a new device that bridges between cavity optomechanics and microfluidics by employing high-Q optical resonances to excite (and interrogate) mechanical vibration. It is surprising that multiple excitation mechanisms are available in the very same device, which generate a variety of mechanical vibrational modes at rates spanning 2 MHz to 11,300 MHz. Centrifugal radiation pressure supports both wineglass modes and breathing modes in the 2-200 MHz span, Forward stimulated Brillouin scattering al...

Cavity optomechanics studies the parametric coupling between phonon modes and photon modes in microresonators by means of radiation pressure (RP)1-3 and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)4-6. SBS and RP mechanisms have been demonstrated in many different optical systems, such as fibers7, microspheres4,6,8, toroids1,9, and crystalline resonators5,10. Through this photon-phonon coupling, both cooling11 and excitation6,10 of mechanical modes have been demonstrated. However, almost all reported optomechanics experiments are with solid phases of matter. This is because direct liquid immersion of the optomechanical devices results in greatly increased radiative acoustic loss because of the higher impedance of liquids compared against air. In addition, in some situations dissipative loss mechanisms in liquids may exceed the radiative acoustic losses.
Recently, a new type of hollow optomechanical oscillator with a microcapillary geometry was introduced12-15, and which by design is equipped for microfluidic experiments. The diameter of this capillary is modulated along its length to form multiple &#8216;bottle resonators&#8217; that simultaneously confine optical whispering-gallery resonances16 as well as mechanical resonant modes17. Multiple families of mechanical resonant modes participate, including breathing modes, wine-glass modes, and whispering-gallery acoustic modes. The wine-glass (standing-wave) and whispering-gallery acoustic (traveling-wave) resonances are formed when a vibration with integer multiple of acoustic wavelengths occurs around the device circumference. Light is evanescently coupled into the optical whispering-gallery modes of these &#8216;bottles&#8217; by means of a tapered optical fiber18. Confinement of the liquid inside19,20 the capillary resonator, as opposed to outside it, enables high mechanical- and optical- quality factors simultaneously, which allows the optical excitation of mechanical modes by means of both RP and SBS. As has been shown, these mechanical excitations are able to penetrate into the fluid within the device12,13, forming a shared solid-liquid resonant mode, thus enabling an opto-mechanical interface to the fluidic environment within.
In this paper we describe fabrication, RP and SBS actuation, and representative measurement results for this novel optomechanical system. Specific material and tool lists are also provided.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:647px;" width="647">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tunable IR laser</td>
			<td>Newfocus</td>
			<td>TLB-6328</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photodetectors</td>
			<td>Newfocus</td>
			<td>1811-FC (Low speed 125MHz) / 1611-FC-AC (High speed 1GHz)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical fiber</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>SMF28</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silica capillary</td>
			<td>PolyMicro</td>
			<td>TSP700850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10.6 um wavelength CO2 laser</td>
			<td>Synrad</td>
			<td>48-1KWM and 48-2KWM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV-curing optical adhesive</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>NOA81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tubing</td>
			<td>Tygon</td>
			<td>EW-06418-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes</td>
			<td>B-D</td>
			<td>YO-07940-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needles</td>
			<td>Weller</td>
			<td>KDS201P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical spectrum analyzer</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>N9010A (EXA Signal Analyzer)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tektronix</td>
			<td>6114A (RSA, Real-time spectrum analyzer)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical spectrum analyzer</td>
			<td>Advantest</td>
			<td>Q8384</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oscilloscope</td>
			<td>Tektronix</td>
			<td>DPO 4104B-L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold mirrors</td>
			<td>II-VI Infrared</td>
			<td>836627</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Linear stage (slow)</td>
			<td>DryLin</td>
			<td>H1W1150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Linear stage (fast)</td>
			<td>PBC Linear</td>
			<td>MTB055D-0902-14F12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fabry Perot optical spectrum analyser</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>SA 200-14A (FSR: 1.5 GHz)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication and testing of microfluidic optomechanical oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

The capillaries produced by this method are thin (between 30 &#181;m and 200 &#181;m), clear, and very flexible, but are sufficiently robust for direct handling. It is important to protect the outer surface of the capillary device against dust and water (moisture) in order to maintain a high optical quality factor (Q). By dipping one end of the capillary in water and blowing air through the capillary by means of a syringe, it can be verified whether the capillary is through or whether was sealed off during fabrication du...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators at JoVE.com

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

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Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Fabrication of Spatially Confined Complex Oxides

Complex materials such as high Tc superconductors, multiferroics, and colossal magnetoresistors have electronic and magnetic properties that arise from the inherent strong electron correlations that reside within them. These materials can also possess electronic phase separation in which regions of vastly different resistive and magnetic behavior can coexist within a single crystal alloy material. By reducing the scale of these materials to length scales at and below the inherent size of the electronic domains, novel behaviors can be exposed. Because of this and the fact that spin-charge-lattice-orbital order parameters each involve correlation lengths, spatially reducing these materials for transport measurements is a critical step in understanding the fundamental physics that drives complex behaviors. These materials also offer great potential to become the next generation of electronic devices 1-3. Thus, the fabrication of low dimensional nano- or micro-structures is extremely important to achieve new functionality. This involves multiple controllable processes from high quality thin film growth to accurate electronic property characterization. Here, we present fabrication protocols of high quality microstructures for complex oxide manganite devices. Detailed descriptions and required equipment of thin film growth, photo-lithography, and wire-bonding are presented.

We describe the use of pulsed laser deposition (PLD), photolithography and wire-bonding techniques to create micrometer scale complex oxides devices. The PLD is utilized to grow epitaxial thin films. Photolithography and wire-bonding techniques are introduced to create practical devices for measurement purposes.

Complex materials such as high Tc superconductors, multiferroics, and colossal magnetoresistors have electronic and magnetic properties that arise from ...

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

A technique to investigate the properties and performance of new multi-electron metal/air battery systems is proposed and presented. A method for synthesizing nanoscopic VB2 is presented as well as step-by-step procedure for applying a zirconium oxide coating to the VB2 particles for stabilization upon discharge. The process for disassembling existing zinc/air cells is shown, in addition construction of the new working electrode to replace the conventional zinc/air cell anode with a the nanoscopic VB2 anode. Finally, discharge of the completed VB2/air battery is reported. We show that using the zinc/air cell as a test bed is useful to provide a consistent configuration to study the performance of the high-energy high capacity nanoscopic VB2 anode.

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

A protocol is presented to study multi-electron metal/air battery systems by using previous technology developed for the zinc/air cell. Electrochemical testing is then performed on fabricated batteries to evaluate performance.

A technique to investigate the properties and performance of new multi-electron metal/air battery systems is proposed and presented. A method for ...

Quantum State Engineering of Light with Continuous-wave Optical Parametric Oscillators

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states are indeed the resources for implementing various protocols, ranging from enhanced metrology to quantum communication and computing. A variety of devices can be used to generate non-classical states, such as single emitters, light-matter interfaces or non-linear systems3. We focus here on the use of a continuous-wave optical parametric oscillator3,4. This system is based on a non-linear &#967;2 crystal inserted inside an optical cavity and it is now well-known as a very efficient source of non-classical light, such as single-mode or two-mode squeezed vacuum depending on the crystal phase matching. 
Squeezed vacuum is a Gaussian state as its quadrature distributions follow a Gaussian statistics. However, it has been shown that number of protocols require non-Gaussian states5. Generating directly such states is a difficult task and would require strong &#967;3 non-linearities. Another procedure, probabilistic but heralded, consists in using a measurement-induced non-linearity via a conditional preparation technique operated on Gaussian states. Here, we detail this generation protocol for two non-Gaussian states, the single-photon state and a superposition of coherent states, using two differently phase-matched parametric oscillators as primary resources. This technique enables achievement of a high fidelity with the targeted state and generation of the state in a well-controlled spatiotemporal mode.

We describe the reliable generation of non-Gaussian states of traveling optical fields, including single-photon states and coherent state superpositions, using a conditional preparation method operated on the non-classical light emitted by optical parametric oscillators. Type-I and type-II phase-matched oscillators are considered and common procedures, such as the required frequency filtering or the high-efficiency quantum state characterization by homodyning, are detailed.

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Solvent Bonding for Fabrication of PMMA and COP Microfluidic Devices

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each thermoplastic of interest. Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method that can be used to fabricate devices from a variety of plastics. An appropriate solvent is added between two device layers to be bonded, and heat and pressure are applied to the device to facilitate the bonding. By using an appropriate combination of solvent, plastic, heat, and pressure, the device can be sealed with a high quality bond, characterized as having high bond coverage, bond strength, optical clarity, durability over time, and low deformation or damage to microfeature geometry. We describe the procedure for bonding devices made from two popular thermoplastics, poly(methyl-methacrylate) (PMMA), and cyclo-olefin polymer (COP), as well as a variety of methods to characterize the quality of the resulting bonds, and strategies to troubleshoot low quality bonds. These methods can be used to develop new solvent bonding protocols for other plastic-solvent systems.

Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method for fabricating thermoplastic microfluidic devices with high quality bonds. We describe a protocol to achieve strong, optically clear bonds in PMMA and COP microfluidic devices that preserve microfeature details, by a judicious combination of pressure, temperature, an appropriate solvent, and device geometry.

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. However, a number of setbacks prevent their integration into commercial devices. The main limiting factor is due to nanoscale phenomena occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces, ultimately leading to degradation of battery operation. These key problems are highly challenging to observe and characterize as these batteries contain multiple buried interfaces. One approach for direct observation of interfacial phenomena in thin film batteries is through the fabrication of electrochemically active nanobatteries by a focused ion beam (FIB). As such, a reliable technique to fabricate nanobatteries was developed and demonstrated in recent work. Herein, a detailed protocol with a step-by-step process is presented to enable the reproduction of this nanobattery fabrication process. In particular, this technique was applied to a thin film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LiPON/a-Si, and has further been previously demonstrated by in situ cycling within a transmission electron microscope.

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is presented.

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...

Scalable Stamp Printing and Fabrication of Hemiwicking Surfaces

Hemiwicking is a process where a fluid wets a patterned surface beyond its normal wetting length due to a combination of capillary action and imbibition. This wetting phenomenon is important in many technical fields ranging from physiology to aerospace engineering. Currently, several different techniques exist for fabricating hemiwicking structures. These conventional methods, however, are often time consuming and are difficult to scale-up for large areas or are difficult to customize for specific, nonhomogeneous patterning geometries. The presented protocol provides researchers with a simple, scalable, and cost-effective method for fabricating micro-patterned hemiwicking surfaces. The method fabricates wicking structures through the use of stamp printing, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) molding, and thin-film surface coatings. The protocol is demonstrated for hemiwicking with ethanol on PDMS micropillar arrays coated with a 70 nm thick aluminum thin-film.

A simple protocol is provided for the fabrication of hemiwicking structures of varying sizes, shapes, and materials. The protocol uses a combination of physical stamping, PDMS molding, and thin-film surface modifications via common materials deposition techniques.

Hemiwicking is a process where a fluid wets a patterned surface beyond its normal wetting length due to a combination of capillary action and imbibition. ...

Method Development for Contactless Resonant Cavity Dielectric Spectroscopic Studies of Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of data that can be obtained from an individual sample and renders it difficult to produce statistically relevant data for unique and rare materials. Resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy is a non-destructive, contactless technique which can simultaneously interrogate both sides of a sheeted material and provide measurements which are suitable for statistical interpretations. This offers analysts the ability to quickly discriminate between sheeted materials based on composition and storage history. In this methodology article, we demonstrate how contactless resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy may be used to differentiate between paper analytes of varying fiber species compositions, to determine the relative age of the paper, and to detect and quantify the amount of post-consumer waste (PCW) recycled fiber content in manufactured office paper.

A protocol for the non-destructive analysis of the fiber content and relative age of paper.

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of ...