The author would like to thank all of my undergraduate Independent Research Students and all of my Microbial Physiology graduate students who tested my transposon mutagenesis ideas during the 2010-2014 spring semesters. This work was funded by the Department of Biological Sciences at Youngstown State University.

1. Electroporation of Competent Cells5,11
<ol>
	<li>Dilute an O/N LB culture of Enterobacter sp. YSU 1/20 into 50 ml of fresh LB medium and grow with shaking at 120 rpm and 30 &#176;C to an O.D. (600 nm) between 0.4 and 0.6. Optionally, grow other bacterial strains at their optimal growth temperature.</li>
	<li>Chill the cells on ice for 5 min and centrifuge at 4 &#176;C and 7,000 x g for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant, resuspend the cells in 50 ml of sterile ice cold water and centrifuge at 4 &#176;C and 7,000 x g for 5 min. Repeat this step.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant and resuspend the cells in a volume of ice cold water equal to the cell pellet volume. For long term storage, wash the cells with 10 ml of ice cold 10% (v/v) glycerol, resuspend in an equal pellet volume of ice cold 10% (v/v) glycerol, store at -80 &#176;C, and thaw on ice before electroporation.</li>
	<li>Add 0.5 &#181;l of the transposome to 40 &#181;l of cells. The commercially available transposome solution is supplied at a DNA concentration of 0.33 &#181;g/&#181;l. Although 0.33 &#181;g is recommended, 0.165 &#181;g DNA is sufficient.</li>
	<li>Place the cell/transposome mixture in an ice cold, 0.2 mm, electroporation cuvette and tap the mixture to the bottom of the cuvette. Shock the cells at 25 &#181;F, 200 &#937;, and 2.5 kV. To ensure that the cells remain chilled, store the electroporation cuvettes in a -20&#176;C freezer before use.</li>
	<li>Immediately, add 960 &#181;l of filter sterilized super optimal broth with catabolite repression (SOC) medium. Mix by pipetting up and down and transfer the cells to a sterile 1.5 ml microfuge tube. 
	NOTE: The cells begin to die after the shock, but the salt in the SOC medium allows them to recover. To economize, it is not necessary to add transposome or to shock the negative control cells. Just add 960 &#181;l of sterile SOC medium to it.</li>
	<li>Incubate the cells at 30 &#176;C for 45-60 min with shaking at 120 rpm. This provides time for the transposome to recombine with the host genome and for the cells to express kanamycin resistance.</li>
	<li>Spread 100 &#181;l of cells on a LB-kan agar plate and incubate the plate O/N&#160;at 30 &#176;C. Store the remaining transformation mix in the refrigerator at 4 &#176;C. Spread additional amounts at a later date up to 2 weeks after the initial electroporation if required.</li>
</ol>
2. Gridding of Transformants
<ol>
	<li>Tape a grid to the lid of an empty 100 x 15 mm petri dish. Copy a grid from &#8220;A Short Course in Bacterial Genetics&#8221;12.</li>
	<li>Draw a line on the bottom of an LB-kan agar plate. Use a small piece of tape to anchor it to the gridded lid so that the grid is visible through the agar. Ensure that the line on the bottom of the plate is aligned with the top, center of the grid. Anchoring the plate with tape keeps it from sliding, allowing for even gridding. The line facilitates colony identification after replica plating.</li>
	<li>Pick a single transformant with a sterile toothpick and spot it in the center of a square in the grid. Just touch the colony and the spot. Do not dig the toothpick into the agar. To avoid contaminating the plate, handle the toothpick only at one end.</li>
	<li>Spot another transformant in an adjacent square as in step 2.3. When the plate is full, incubate it O/N at 30 &#176;C. This is the master plate.</li>
</ol>
3. Replica Plating to Determine the Auxotroph Phenotype12
<ol>
	<li>For each plate that was gridded, make a stack of three fresh agar plates numbered one through three: one for LB-kan, two for M-9-kan and three for LB-kan. Dry the plates upside down, O/N, at 37 &#176;C before use.</li>
	<li>Draw a line on the top of each plate as in step 2.2.</li>
	<li>Wipe the replica plating tool with 70% ethanol, place a sterile velveteen square on top of the replica plating tool and clamp the velveteen square down. Hands are teeming with microbes even after washing them. Prevent the introduction of contaminating microbes by handling the velveteen square by its edge.</li>
	<li>Align the line on the master plate with a line drawn on the clamp and place the plate on top of the velveteen square. Apply gentle pressure to transfer the bacteria from the plate to the velveteen square. Be careful not to smear the bacteria. Remove the master plate from the velveteen square.</li>
	<li>Align the line drawn on plate number one with the line on the clamp and place it on top of the velveteen square. Apply gentle pressure to transfer the bacteria from the velveteen square to the plate. Remove plate number one.</li>
	<li>Discard the velveteen square into a beaker of water and place a clean, sterile velveteen square on the replica plating tool as in step 3.3. This step prevents over-inoculation which causes breakthrough growth and false positive results.</li>
	<li>Align the line on plate number one with the line on the clamp and place it on top of the new velveteen square. Apply gentle pressure to transfer the bacteria from plate number one to the velveteen square. Remove plate number one.</li>
	<li>Align the line drawn on plate number two with the line on the clamp and place it on top of the velveteen square. Apply gentle pressure to transfer the bacteria from the velveteen square to plate number two. Remove plate number two.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 3.8 for plate number three. The third plate is a control for complete transfer from the master plate to the other two plates. Discard the velveteen square into a beaker of water. To reuse the velveteen squares, autoclave the beaker containing the contaminated velveteen squares, wash them, dry them, wrap them in aluminum foil and re-autoclave them.</li>
	<li>Incubate the plates at 30 &#176;C O/N. Colonies that grow on both LB-kan agar plates but fail to grow on M-9-kan plates are considered to be auxotrophs (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Streak out auxotrophs from plate number one onto a fresh LB-kan agar plate, and incubate the plate at 30 &#176;C O/N.</li>
	<li>Streak out for isolation 3 colonies from the streak plate in step 3.11 onto a fresh LB-kan plate. Incubate the plate at 30 &#176;C O/N. This ensures that the mutant is well isolated. Divide the plate into thirds and streak out each colony in one section.</li>
	<li>Spot colonies from the streaked out colonies derived from step 3.12 onto a fresh LB-kan plate to form a grid as in steps 2.1-2.4. Each mutant is being re-tested in triplicate.</li>
	<li>Replicate plate again as in steps 3.1-3.10 to confirm the auxotroph phenotype.</li>
</ol>
4. Gene Rescue
<ol>
	<li>Grow a 3 ml O/N culture of an isolated mutant colony from step 3.13 in liquid LB-kan medium at 30 &#176;C. Purify genomic DNA from 1 ml of culture using a commercially available genomic DNA purification kit.</li>
	<li>Set up a mixture of 0.025 U BfuC I restriction endonuclease and 14 &#181;l of 1 &#956;g/&#956;l genomic DNA in a 20 &#181;l reaction on ice. Since BfuC I cuts the transposon at twelve different sites, it may be more efficient to use restriction endonuclease, Bfa I or Hae III, which cuts the transposon at two and three different sites, respectively.</li>
	<li>Incubate the reaction at 37 &#176;C for 25 min and then at 80 &#176;C for 20 min to inactivate the enzyme. Analyze 3 &#181;l of the partially digested DNA on a 0.8% agarose gel (Figure 3). A successful partial digestion results in a smear from above 10 kb down to the bottom of the gel.</li>
	<li>Ligate 15 &#181;l of partially digested genomic DNA using 800 units of T4 DNA ligase in a 500 &#181;l reaction. Incubate the reaction O/N at 4 &#176;C. The large reaction volume maximizes the ligation of single fragments to themselves and minimizes interactions between two or more DNA fragments.</li>
	<li>Precipitate the ligated DNA by adding 50 &#181;l of 3 M sodium acetate, pH 5.5, and 1 ml of 95% ethanol and incubating it at -20&#176;C for 20 min.</li>
	<li>Microfuge the DNA at 4 &#176;C and 13,500 x g for 10 min, wash the pellet with 70% ethanol, dry it in a centrifugal vacuum concentrator, and resuspend it in 10 &#181;l of nuclease free water. Alternatively, the DNA may be air dried at RT for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Use 4 &#181;l of resuspended DNA to transform E. coli strain ECD100D pir or ECD100D pir116 by electroporation as in section 1. The R6k&#947; replication origin requires a bacterial strain with a pir gene to replicate6. The pir strain results in low copy plasmids, and the pir116 strain contains a pir mutant gene that results in high copy plasmids. Each transformant contains a new plasmid with the transposon and a region of the interrupted chromosome (Figure 1E).</li>
	<li>Inoculate 5 ml of LB-kan medium with a single colony, grow it O/N with shaking at 120 rpm and 37 &#176;C, and purify plasmid DNA from the entire O/N culture using a commercial kit.</li>
	<li>Digest 14 &#181;l of the plasmid using the restriction endonuclease Xho I. Make sure the final volume of the reaction is 20 &#181;l. This enzyme recognizes a site in the middle of the transposon at the 5&#8217; end of the kanamycin resistance gene. Analyze 10 &#181;l of the undigested and digested plasmid on a 0.8% agarose gel (Figure 3). The plasmid consists of the 2 kb transposon plus flanking host DNA.</li>
</ol>
5. DNA Sequencing
<ol>
	<li>Sequence the plasmid using a commercially available sequencing kit, primers that are homologous to each end of the transposon, and a capillary sequencing analysis system. Alternatively, the plasmid may be shipped to an outside institution for sequencing.</li>
	<li>Use the molecular weight standard (1 kb ladder) in the gel to estimate the size of the plasmid. Then, estimate the number of nanograms (ng) of plasmid that is required for 50 fmol.</li>
	<li>Measure the concentration of the plasmid DNA using a spectrophotometer at wavelengths of 260 nm (A260) and 280 nm (A280). Ensure the light path length through the cuvette is 1 cm. Determine the concentration by multiplying the absorbance at 260 nm by 50 ng/&#181;l. High quality plasmid DNA will have an A260/ A280 ratio between 1.8 and 2.0.</li>
	<li>The volume of DNA required for each sequencing reaction is the number of ng required for 50 fmol divided by the concentration of the plasmid. Mix the volume of required plasmid with water to bring the total volume up to 10 &#181;l.</li>
	<li>Heat the plasmid DNA/water mixture at 96 &#176;C for 1 min and then cool it to RT.</li>
	<li>Add 8 &#181;l of master mix from the sequencing kit and 2 &#181;l of 1.6 &#956;M of one of the sequencing primers.</li>
	<li>Follow the protocol from the sequencing kit for the thermal cycler program and reaction cleanup.</li>
	<li>Analyze each sample using a capillary DNA analysis system.</li>
	<li>Use a commercially available software package to view the DNA sequence. Search for the sequence, &#8220;5&#8217;-GAGACAG-3&#8217;,&#8221; which is the last 7 bp of the transposon (Figure 4). The sequence before the 5&#8217; end of this 7 bp segment belongs to the transposon. The sequence after the 3&#8217; end of this 7 bp segment belongs to the interrupted gene.</li>
	<li>Determine the possible function of the interrupted gene using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) 7,8. Use the following link: <a href="http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi?PROGRAM=blastn&amp;BLAST_PROGRAMS=megaBlast&amp;PAGE_TYPE=BlastSearch" target="_b;ank">http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi?PROGRAM=blastn&#38;BLAST_PROGRAMS=megaBlast&#38;PAGE_TYPE=BlastSearch</a>. Paste the sequence of the interrupted gene into the query box, select &#8220;others&#8221; under the database and click on &#8220;BLAST&#8221; at the bottom of the page. When the result appears, scroll down the page to view the alignment results (Figure 5).</li>
</ol>

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The author has nothing to disclose.

Transposon mutagenesis using a transposome is an efficient tool for generating auxotrophs in Enterobacter sp. YSU and other types of Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria3,4. The process was initiated by introducing the Tn5-derived transposome into the host by electroporation. To identify colonies with inserts, the untransformed target strain had to be sensitive to kanamycin in order to select for the resistance marker carried by the transposon. Some hosts produce restriction endonucleases...

Prototrophic bacteria grow in M-9 minimal salts medium containing glucose (M-9 medium), converting glucose through central carbon metabolism pathways to generate precursors, such as amino acids, nucleic acids and vitamins, for biosynthesis1. M-9 medium contains ammonium chloride as a nitrogen source, sodium and potassium phosphate as a buffer and phosphorous source, magnesium sulfate as a sulfur source and glucose as a carbon and energy source. Luria-Bertani (LB) medium is rich in amino acids from tryptone and in vitamins and growth factors from yeast extract. It supports the growth of auxotrophs that cannot synthesize amino acids, vitamins and other growth factors required for growth on M-9 medium. Thus, prototrophs will grow in LB and M-9 medium, whereas auxotrophs will grow in LB medium but not in M-9 medium. By introducing mutations into a prototrophic population of bacteria and identifying mutated genes that cause auxotrophic phenotypes, it is possible to obtain a better understanding of the metabolism in a bacterial strain.
Transposon mutagenesis can be used to identify many of the genes required for growth on glucose in M-9 medium. Transposons insert themselves randomly into the host genome2. By spotting transposon transformants on LB agar plates and replica plating them onto M-9 medium agar plates, it is possible to screen for auxotrophs. Interrupted genes are identified through gene rescue. This study uses a commercially available Tn5-derived transposome which is shipped as a solution of a linear transposon DNA segment mixed with transposase protein. The DNA segment lacks a transposase gene but contains a gene for kanamycin resistance, an R6K&#947; replication origin and two mosaic motifs which are DNA sequences for transposase binding at each end of the segment3,4. Since the transposase protein is added directly to the DNA, the DNA segment alone is defined as the transposon, and the DNA/transposase protein complex is defined as the transposome. The transposome is transformed by electroporation5 into a kanamycin sensitive host (Figure 1A). Colonies that grow on LB agar plates containing kanamycin (LB-kan) have transposon inserts (Figure 1B), and replica plated transformants that fail to grow on M-9 medium agar plates containing kanamycin (M-9-kan) are auxotrophs (Figire 1C). Genomic DNA from a mutant is purified and partially digested with the 4-base cutting restriction endonuclease, BfuC I (Figure 1D). The ligated DNA is transformed into a strain of Escherichia coli (E. coli) that contains the pir gene (Figure 1E). This gene allows the new plasmid containing the transposon and flanking host chromosomal region to replicate in E. coli6. The kanamycin resistance gene serves as a selectable marker for the new plasmid. Finally, sequencing using primers complementary to each end of the transposon and Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) analysis7,8 of the resulting sequence are used to determine the identity of the interrupted genes.
This transposome mutagenesis strategy provides three advantages3. First, since the transposase protein is bound directly to the transposon, insertion does not depend on expression of the transposase gene within the host. Once the transposon incorporates itself into the host genome, the transposase is degraded, preventing additional movement of the transposon. However, additional movement cannot be prevented if the host possesses an endogenous Tn5 transpositional element. Second, introduction of the transposome by electroporation makes it possible to use it in a wide variety of hosts. It also eliminates the need to introduce the transposon by bacterial conjugation or by viral infection. Both processes require host susceptibility. Third, inclusion of the kanamycin resistance gene and the R6K&#947; replication origin in the transposome makes it easier to identify the interrupted gene. Transposon-interrupted regions can be stored and sequenced as plasmids, eliminating the need to use the inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique for gene identification.
The protocol presented in this video describes each step for transposon mutagenesis of Enterobacter sp. YSU9 using a transposome from its introduction into the bacterial cells to the identification of the putative gene it interrupted. In addition to previously published protocols3,4,10, detailed methods for using replica plating to screen for auxotrophs are presented. This mutagenesis technique may be used for investigating other phenotypes, such as antibiotic and metal resistances, in different types of bacteria, for identifying the minimal number of genes required for growth under defined culture conditions in synthetic biology studies, or for teaching a laboratory component of a genetics or microbial physiology course.&#160;&#160;

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="707">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Name of Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">EZ-Tn5 R6K&#947;ori/KAN-2 Tnp Transposome Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TSM08KR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">EC100D pir+ Electrocompetent E. coli</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ECP09500</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Capable of replicating plasmids with an R6K&#947; replication origin at a low copy number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">EC100D pir-116 Electrocompetent E. coli</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Epicentre (Illumina)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EC6P095H</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Capable of replicating plasmids with an R6K&#947; replication origin at a high copy number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">5X M-9 Salts</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF048517</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Lennox LB Broth</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP1427-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Agar</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J637-1KG</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Solid media contained 1.6% (w/v) agar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Kanamycin Sulfate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0408-25G</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">When required, media contained 50 &#956;g/ml kanamycin sulfate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">D-Glucose Monohydrate</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">0643-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Yeast Extract</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J850-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tryptone</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">J859-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4504-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">X190-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP214-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:216px;">MgSO2</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP213-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="92">
			<td height="92" style="height:92px;width:216px;">Super Optimal Broth with Catabolite Repression (SOC) medium</td>
			<td style="width:145px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:227px;">0.5% (w/v) yeast extract, 2% (w/v) tryptone, 10 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM KCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 20 mM MgSO4 and 20 mM Glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">BfuC I</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0636S</td>
			<td>Partial digestion of genomic DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Xho I</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0146S</td>
			<td>Plasmid digestion</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">T4 DNA Ligase</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M0202S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Nuclease Free Water</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Amresco, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E476-1L</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">For dissolving precipitated DNA and restriction endonuclease reactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">GenomeLab DTCS - Quick Start Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">608120</td>
			<td>DNA sequencing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Wizard Genomic DNA Purification Kit</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1120A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Wizard Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification System</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A1460</td>
			<td>Plasmid purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Replica Plating Block</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">09-718-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Velveteen Squares</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">09-718-2</td>
			<td>Replica plating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">PetriStickers</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Diversified Biotech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PSTK-1100</td>
			<td>Grid for replica plating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FB0875712</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gene Pulser II</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BioRad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Electroporation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Electroporation Cuvettes &#8211; 2 mm</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">BioExpress</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E-5010-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CentriVap DNA Vacuum Concentrator</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Labconco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">7970010</td>
			<td>Drying DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">CEQ 2000XL DNA Analysis System</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>DNA sequencing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Vector NTI Advance 11.5.0</td>
			<td style="width:145px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12605099</td>
			<td>DNA sequence analysis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of enterobacter sp. ysu auxotrophs using transposon mutagenesis

Prototrophic bacteria grow on M-9 minimal salts medium supplemented with glucose (M-9 medium), which is used as a carbon and energy source. Auxotrophs can be generated using a transposome. The commercially available, Tn5-derived transposome used in this protocol consists of a linear segment of DNA containing an R6K&#947; replication origin, a gene for kanamycin resistance and two mosaic sequence ends, which serve as transposase binding sites. The transposome, provided as a DNA/transposase protein complex, is introduced by electroporation into the prototrophic strain, Enterobacter sp. YSU, and randomly incorporates itself into this host&#8217;s genome. Transformants are replica plated onto Luria-Bertani agar plates containing kanamycin, (LB-kan) and onto M-9 medium agar plates containing kanamycin (M-9-kan). The transformants that grow on LB-kan plates but not on M-9-kan plates are considered to be auxotrophs. Purified genomic DNA from an auxotroph is partially digested, ligated and transformed into a pir+ Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain. The R6K&#947; replication origin allows the plasmid to replicate in pir+ E. coli strains, and the kanamycin resistance marker allows for plasmid selection. Each transformant possesses a new plasmid containing the transposon flanked by the interrupted chromosomal region. Sanger sequencing and the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) suggest a putative identity of the interrupted gene. There are three advantages to using this transposome mutagenesis strategy. First, it does not rely on the expression of a transposase gene by the host. Second, the transposome is introduced into the target host by electroporation, rather than by conjugation or by transduction and therefore is more efficient. Third, the R6K&#947; replication origin makes it easy to identify the mutated gene which is partially recovered in a recombinant plasmid. This technique can be used to investigate the genes involved in other characteristics of Enterobacter sp. YSU or of a wider variety of bacterial strains.

Transformation of Enterobacter sp. YSU by electroporation with the transposome initiated random genome insertion into the host genome (Figure 1A,B). A successful electroporation yielded several thousand transformants which grew on LB-kan plates. To obtain 300-400, well-spaced colonies per plate, the amount of transformation mixture spread on each LB-kan agar plate was optimized. Each transformant contained at least one transposon insert, but it was not clear if an important gene for growth on M-...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis at JoVE.com

Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis

Enterobacter sp. YSU grows in glucose minimal salts medium. Auxotrophs are generated by transforming it with a transposome which randomly inserts itself into the host genome. Mutants are found by replica plating from complex medium to minimal medium. Interrupted genes are identified by gene rescue and sequencing.

Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis

Prototrophic bacteria grow on M-9 minimal salts medium supplemented with glucose (M-9 medium), which is used as a carbon and energy source. Auxotrophs can ...

generation-enterobacter-sp-ysu-auxotrophs-using-transposon

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13.8K Views.  Youngstown State University. Enterobacter sp. YSU grows in glucose minimal salts medium. Auxotrophs are generated by transforming it with a transposome which randomly inserts itself into the host genome. Mutants are found by replica plating from complex medium to minimal medium. Interrupted genes are identified by gene rescue and sequencing.

Video: Generation of Enterobacter sp. YSU Auxotrophs Using Transposon Mutagenesis

Generation of Stable Transgenic C. elegans Using Microinjection

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1. The plasmid DNA rearranges to form extrachromosomal concatamers that are stably inherited, though not with the same efficiency as actual chromosomes 2. A gene of interest is co-injected with an obvious phenotypic marker, such as rol-6 or GFP, to allow selection of transgenic animals under a dissecting microscope. The exogenous gene may be expressed from its native promoter for cellular localization studies. Alternatively, the transgene can be driven by a different tissue-specific promoter to assess the role of the gene product in that particular cell or tissue. This technique efficiently drives gene expression in all tissues of C. elegans except for the germline or early embryo 3. Creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized for a range of experimental paradigms. This video demonstrates the microinjection procedure to generate transgenic worms. Furthermore, selection and maintenance of stable transgenic C. elegans lines is described.

This video demonstrates the technique of microinjection into the gonad of C. elegans to create transgenic animals.

Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans can be readily created via microinjection of a DNA plasmid solution into the gonad 1.  The plasmid DNA rearranges to ...

Homemade Site Directed Mutagenesis of Whole Plasmids

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned target gene can be altered by substitution, deletion or insertion of a few bases directly into a plasmid. It works by simply amplifying the whole plasmid, in a non PCR-based thermocycling reaction. During the reaction mutagenic primers, carrying the desired mutation, are integrated into the newly synthesized plasmid. In this video tutorial we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid. The protocol works with standard reagents and is independent from commercial kits, which often are very expensive. Applying this protocol can reduce the total cost of a reaction to an eighth of what it costs using some of the commercial kits. In this video we also comment on critical steps during the process and give detailed instructions on how to design the mutagenic primers.

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. Here we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid using standard reagents.

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned ...

Single Oocyte Bisulfite Mutagenesis

Epigenetics encompasses all heritable and reversible modifications to chromatin that alter gene accessibility, and thus are the primary mechanisms for regulating gene transcription1. DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that acts predominantly as a repressive mark. Through the covalent addition of a methyl group onto cytosines in CpG dinucleotides, it can recruit additional repressive proteins and histone modifications to initiate processes involved in condensing chromatin and silencing genes2. DNA methylation is essential for normal development as it plays a critical role in developmental programming, cell differentiation, repression of retroviral elements, X-chromosome inactivation and genomic imprinting.
One of the most powerful methods for DNA methylation analysis is bisulfite mutagenesis. Sodium bisulfite is a DNA mutagen that deaminates cytosines into uracils. Following PCR amplification and sequencing, these conversion events are detected as thymines. Methylated cytosines are protected from deamination and thus remain as cytosines, enabling identification of DNA methylation at the individual nucleotide level3. Development of the bisulfite mutagenesis assay has advanced from those originally reported4-6 towards ones that are more sensitive and reproducible7. One key advancement was embedding smaller amounts of DNA in an agarose bead, thereby protecting DNA from the harsh bisulfite treatment8. This enabled methylation analysis to be performed on pools of oocytes and blastocyst-stage embryos9. The most sophisticated bisulfite mutagenesis protocol to date is for individual blastocyst-stage embryos10. However, since blastocysts have on average 64 cells (containing 120-720 pg of genomic DNA), this method is not efficacious for methylation studies on individual oocytes or cleavage-stage embryos.
Taking clues from agarose embedding of minute DNA amounts including oocytes11, here we present a method whereby oocytes are directly embedded in an agarose and lysis solution bead immediately following retrieval and removal of the zona pellucida from the oocyte. This enables us to bypass the two main challenges of single oocyte bisulfite mutagenesis: protecting a minute amount of DNA from degradation, and subsequent loss during the numerous protocol steps. Importantly, as data are obtained from single oocytes, the issue of PCR bias within pools is eliminated. Furthermore, inadvertent cumulus cell contamination is detectable by this method since any sample with more than one methylation pattern may be excluded from analysis12. This protocol provides an improved method for successful and reproducible analyses of DNA methylation at the single-cell level and is ideally suited for individual oocytes as well as cleavage-stage embryos.

Bisulfite mutagenesis is the gold standard for analyzing DNA methylation. Our modified protocol allows for DNA methylation analysis at the single-cell level and was specifically designed for individual oocytes. It can also be used for cleavage-stage embryos.

Epigenetics encompasses all heritable and reversible modifications to chromatin that alter gene accessibility, and thus are the primary mechanisms for ...

Generation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Peripheral Blood Using the STEMCCA Lentiviral Vector

Through the ectopic expression of four transcription factors, Oct4, Klf4, Sox2 and cMyc, human somatic cells can be converted to a pluripotent state, generating so-called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)1-4. Patient-specific iPSCs lack the ethical concerns that surround embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and would bypass possible immune rejection. Thus, iPSCs have attracted considerable attention for disease modeling studies, the screening of pharmacological compounds, and regenerative therapies5.
We have shown the generation of transgene-free human iPSCs from patients with different lung diseases using a single excisable polycistronic lentiviral Stem Cell Cassette (STEMCCA) encoding the Yamanaka factors6. These iPSC lines were generated from skin fibroblasts, the most common cell type used for reprogramming. Normally, obtaining fibroblasts requires a skin punch biopsy followed by expansion of the cells in culture for a few passages. Importantly, a number of groups have reported the reprogramming of human peripheral blood cells into iPSCs7-9. In one study, a Tet inducible version of the STEMCCA vector was employed9, which required the blood cells to be simultaneously infected with a constitutively active lentivirus encoding the reverse tetracycline transactivator. In contrast to fibroblasts, peripheral blood cells can be collected via minimally invasive procedures, greatly reducing the discomfort and distress of the patient. A simple and effective protocol for reprogramming blood cells using a constitutive single excisable vector may accelerate the application of iPSC technology by making it accessible to a broader research community. Furthermore, reprogramming of peripheral blood cells allows for the generation of iPSCs from individuals in which skin biopsies should be avoided (i.e. aberrant scarring) or due to pre-existing disease conditions preventing access to punch biopsies.
Here we demonstrate a protocol for the generation of human iPSCs from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) using a single floxed-excisable lentiviral vector constitutively expressing the 4 factors. Freshly collected or thawed PBMCs are expanded for 9 days as described10,11 in medium containing ascorbic acid, SCF, IGF-1, IL-3 and EPO before being transduced with the STEMCCA lentivirus. Cells are then plated onto MEFs and ESC-like colonies can be visualized two weeks after infection. Finally, selected clones are expanded and tested for the expression of the pluripotency markers SSEA-4, Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. This protocol is simple, robust and highly consistent, providing a reliable methodology for the generation of human iPSCs from readily accessible 4 ml of blood.

Here we show a simple and effective protocol for the generation of human iPSCs from 3-4 ml of peripheral blood using a single lentiviral reprogramming vector. Reprogramming of readily available blood cells promises to accelerate the utilization of iPSC technology by making it accessible to a broader research community.

Through the ectopic expression of four transcription factors, Oct4, Klf4, Sox2 and cMyc, human somatic cells can be converted to a pluripotent state, ...

Rapid and Efficient Zebrafish Genotyping Using PCR with High-resolution Melt Analysis

Zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate model system for studying development, modeling disease, and performing drug screening. Recently a variety of genetic tools have been introduced, including multiple strategies for inducing mutations and generating transgenic lines. However, large-scale screening is limited by traditional genotyping methods, which are time-consuming and labor-intensive. Here we describe a technique to analyze zebrafish genotypes by PCR combined with high-resolution melting analysis (HRMA).&#160;This approach is rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive, with lower risk of contamination artifacts.&#160;Genotyping by PCR with HRMA can be used for embryos or adult fish, including in high-throughput screening protocols.

PCR combined with high-resolution melt analysis (HRMA) is demonstrated as a rapid and efficient method to genotype zebrafish.

Zebrafish is a powerful vertebrate model system for studying development, modeling disease, and performing drug screening. Recently a variety of genetic ...

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among multicellular animals. Hydra is used as a model for the study of regeneration, pattern formation, and stem cells. However, research efforts have been hampered by lack of a reliable method for gene perturbations to study molecular function. The development of transgenic methods has revitalized the study of Hydra biology1. Transgenic Hydra allow for the tracking of live cells, sorting to yield pure cell populations for biochemical analysis, manipulation of gene function by knockdown and over-expression, and analysis of promoter function. Plasmid DNA injected into early stage embryos randomly integrates into the genome early in development. This results in hatchlings that express transgenes in patches of tissue in one or more of the three lineages (ectodermal epithelial, endodermal epithelial, or interstitial). The success rate of obtaining a hatchling with transgenic tissue is between 10% and 20%. Asexual propagation of the transgenic hatchling is used to establish a uniformly transgenic line in a particular lineage. Generating transgenic Hydra is surprisingly simple and robust, and here we describe a protocol that can be easily implemented at low cost.

Generation of Transgenic Hydra by Embryo Microinjection

Stably transgenic Hydra are made by microinjection of plasmid DNA into embryos followed by random genomic integration and asexual propagation to establish a uniform line. Transgenic Hydra are used to track cell movements, overexpress genes, study promoter function, or knock down gene expression using RNAi.

As a member of the phylum Cnidaria, the sister group to all bilaterians, Hydra can shed light on fundamental biological processes shared among ...

Efficient iPS Cell Generation from Blood Using Episomes and HDAC Inhibitors

This manuscript illustrates a protocol for efficiently creating integration-free human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from peripheral blood using episomal plasmids and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors. The advantages of this approach include: (1) the use of a minimal amount of peripheral blood as a source material; (2) nonintegrating reprogramming vectors; (3) a cost effective method for generating vector free iPSCs; (4) a single transfection; and (5) the use of small molecules to facilitate epigenetic reprogramming. Briefly, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are isolated from routine phlebotomy samples and then cultured in defined growth factors to yield a highly proliferative erythrocyte progenitor cell population that is remarkably amenable to reprogramming. Nonintegrating, nontransmissible episomal plasmids expressing OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, MYCL, LIN28A, and a p53 short hairpin (sh)RNA are introduced into the derived erythroblasts via a single nucleofection. Cotransfection of an episome that expresses enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) allows for easy identification of transfected cells. A separate replication-deficient plasmid expressing Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) is also added to the reaction mixture for increased expression of episomal proteins. Transfected cells are then plated onto a layer of irradiated mouse embryonic fibroblasts (iMEFs) for continued reprogramming. As soon as iPSC-like colonies appear at about twelve days after nucleofection, HDAC inhibitors are added to the medium to facilitate epigenetic remodeling. We have found that the inclusion of HDAC inhibitors routinely increases the generation of fully reprogrammed iPSC colonies by 2 fold. Once iPSC colonies exhibit typical human embryonic stem cell (hESC) morphology, they are gently transferred to individual iMEF-coated tissue culture plates for continued growth and expansion.

Here we describe a protocol for generating human induced pluripotent stem cells from peripheral blood using an episome based reprogramming strategy and histone deacetylase inhibitors.

This manuscript illustrates a protocol for efficiently creating integration-free human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from peripheral blood using ...

A Protocol for Functional Assessment of Whole-Protein Saturation Mutagenesis Libraries Utilizing High-Throughput Sequencing

Site-directed mutagenesis has long been used as a method to interrogate protein structure, function and evolution. Recent advances in massively-parallel sequencing technology have opened up the possibility of assessing the functional or fitness effects of large numbers of mutations simultaneously. Here, we present a protocol for experimentally determining the effects of all possible single amino acid mutations in a protein of interest utilizing high-throughput sequencing technology, using the 263 amino acid antibiotic resistance enzyme TEM-1 &#946;-lactamase as an example. In this approach, a whole-protein saturation mutagenesis library is constructed by site-directed mutagenic PCR, randomizing each position individually to all possible amino acids. The library is then transformed into bacteria, and selected for the ability to confer resistance to &#946;-lactam antibiotics. The fitness effect of each mutation is then determined by deep sequencing of the library before and after selection. Importantly, this protocol introduces methods which maximize sequencing read depth and permit the simultaneous selection of the entire mutation library, by mixing adjacent positions into groups of length accommodated by high-throughput sequencing read length and utilizing orthogonal primers to barcode each group. Representative results using this protocol are provided by assessing the fitness effects of all single amino acid mutations in TEM-1 at a clinically relevant dosage of ampicillin. The method should be easily extendable to other proteins for which a high-throughput selection assay is in place.

We present a protocol for the functional assessment of comprehensive single-site saturation mutagenesis libraries of proteins utilizing high-throughput sequencing. Importantly, this approach uses orthogonal primer pairs to multiplex library construction and sequencing. Representative results using TEM-1 &#946;-lactamase selected at a clinically relevant dosage of ampicillin are provided.

Site-directed mutagenesis has long been used as a method to interrogate protein structure, function and evolution. Recent advances in massively-parallel ...

Microbiota Analysis Using Two-step PCR and Next-generation 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing

The human gut is colonized by trillions of bacteria that support physiologic functions such as food metabolism, energy harvesting, and regulation of the immune system. Perturbation of the healthy gut microbiome has been suggested to play a role in the development of inflammatory diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Environmental and genetic factors can influence the composition of the microbiome; therefore, identification of microbial communities linked with a disease phenotype has become the first step towards defining the microbiome&#8217;s role in health and disease. Use of 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing for profiling bacterial community has helped in advancing microbiome research. Despite its wide use, there is no uniform protocol for 16S rRNA-based taxonomic profiling analysis. Another limitation is the low resolution of taxonomic assignment due to technical difficulties such as smaller sequencing reads, as well as use of only forward (R1) reads in the final analysis due to low quality of reverse (R2) reads. There is need for a simplified method with high resolution to characterize bacterial diversity in a given biospecimen. Advancements in sequencing technology with the ability to sequence longer reads at high resolution have helped to overcome some of these challenges. Present sequencing technology combined with a publicly available metagenomic analysis pipeline such as R-based Divisive Amplicon Denoising Algorithm-2 (DADA2) has helped advance microbial profiling at high resolution, as DADA2 can assign sequence at the genus and species levels. Described here is a guide for performing bacterial profiling using two-step amplification of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, followed by analysis using freely available analysis tools (i.e., DADA2, Phyloseq, and METAGENassist). It is believed that this simple and complete workflow will serve as an excellent tool for researchers interested in performing microbiome profiling studies.

Described here is a simplified standard operating procedure for microbiome profiling using 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing and analysis using freely available tools. This protocol will help researchers who are new to the microbiome field as well as those requiring updates on methods to achieve bacterial profiling at a higher resolution.

The human gut is colonized by trillions of bacteria that support physiologic functions such as food metabolism, energy harvesting, and regulation of the ...

Generating Transposon Insertion Libraries in Gram-Negative Bacteria for High-Throughput Sequencing

Transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) is a powerful method that combines transposon mutagenesis and massive parallel sequencing to identify genes and pathways that contribute to bacterial fitness under a wide range of environmental conditions. Tn-seq applications are extensive and have not only enabled examination of genotype-phenotype relationships at an organism level but also at the population, community and systems levels. Gram-negative bacteria are highly associated with antimicrobial resistance phenotypes, which has increased incidents of antibiotic treatment failure. Antimicrobial resistance is defined as bacterial growth in the presence of otherwise lethal antibiotics. The &#8220;last-line&#8221; antimicrobial colistin is used to treat Gram-negative bacterial infections. However, several Gram-negative pathogens, including Acinetobacter baumannii can develop colistin resistance through a range of molecular mechanisms, some of which were characterized using Tn-seq. Furthermore, signal transduction pathways that regulate colistin resistance vary within Gram-negative bacteria. Here we propose an efficient method of transposon mutagenesis in A. baumannii that streamlines generation of a saturating transposon insertion library and amplicon library construction by eliminating the need for restriction enzymes, adapter ligation, and gel purification. The methods described herein will enable in-depth analysis of molecular determinants that contribute to A. baumannii fitness when challenged with colistin. The protocol is also applicable to other Gram-negative ESKAPE pathogens, which are primarily associated with drug resistant hospital-acquired infections.

We describe a method to generate saturating transposon mutant libraries in Gram-negative bacteria and subsequent preparation of DNA amplicon libraries for high-throughput sequencing. As an example, we focus on the ESKAPE pathogen, Acinetobacter baumannii, but this protocol is amenable to a wide range of Gram-negative organisms.

Transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) is a powerful method that combines transposon mutagenesis and massive parallel sequencing to identify genes and pathways ...