Name: performing behavioral tasks in subjects with intracranial electrodes
Uploaded: 2014-10-02T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Performing Behavioral Tasks in Subjects with Intracranial Electrodes at JoVE.com

This work was supported by EFRI-MC3: # 1137237 awarded to S.V.S. and J.T.G.

All tasks were performed according to an approved protocol submitted to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Cleveland Clinic Foundation. An informed consent process was conducted with each patient prior to all research activities. In this example, a subject that meets study criterion that has had stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) electrodes implanted for seizure is chosen. The project was discussed with the subject and they have consented to participate.
1. Patient Enrollment
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<ol>
	<li>Rosenow, F., Luders, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Presurgical+evaluation+of+epilepsy.">Presurgical evaluation of epilepsy.</a> Brain. 124, 1683-1700 (1093).</li><li>Adelson, P. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+subdural+grids+and+strip+electrodes+to+identify+a+seizure+focus+in+children.">Use of subdural grids and strip electrodes to identify a seizure focus in children.</a> Pediatr. Neurosurg. 22 (4), 174-180 (1995).</li><li>Jayakar, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Invasive+EEG+monitoring+in+children:+When,+where,+and+what.">Invasive EEG monitoring in children: When, where, and what.</a> J Clin Neurophysiol. 16, 408-418 (1999).</li><li>Almeida, A. N., Martinez, V., Feindel, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+first+case+of+invasive+EEG+monitoring+for+the+surgical+treatment+of+epilepsy:+Historical+significance+and+context.">The first case of invasive EEG monitoring for the surgical treatment of epilepsy: Historical significance and context.</a> Epilepsia. 46, 1082-1085 (2005).</li><li>Dinner, D. S., Luders, H. O., Klem, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+electrocorticography:+Cleveland+clinic+experience.">Chronic electrocorticography: Cleveland clinic experience.</a> Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. , 58-69 (1998).</li><li>Bancaud, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+Stereotaxic+Exploration+(Seeg)+of+Epilepsy.">Functional Stereotaxic Exploration (Seeg) of Epilepsy.</a> Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 28, 85 (1970).</li><li>Chassoux, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intralesional+recordings+and+epileptogenic+zone+in+focal+polymicrogyria.">Intralesional recordings and epileptogenic zone in focal polymicrogyria.</a> Epilepsia. 49, 51-64 (2008).</li><li>Lo Russo, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Focal+cortical+resection+in+malformations+of+cortical+development.">Focal cortical resection in malformations of cortical development.</a> Epileptic Disord. 5, S115-S123 (2003).</li><li>Avanzini, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discussion+of+stereoelectroencephalography.">Discussion of stereoelectroencephalography.</a> Acta neurologica Scandinavica Supplementum. , 152-170 (1994).</li><li>Cossu, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stereo-EEG+in+children.">Stereo-EEG in children.</a> Child Nerv Syst. 22, 766-778 (2006).</li><li>Cossu, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epilepsy+surgery+in+children:+Results+and+predictors+of+outcome+on+seizures.">Epilepsy surgery in children: Results and predictors of outcome on seizures.</a> Epilepsia. 49, 65-72 (2008).</li><li>Cossu, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stereoelectroencephalography+in+the+presurgical+evaluation+of+focal+epilepsy+in+infancy+and+early+childhood+Clinical+article.">Stereoelectroencephalography in the presurgical evaluation of focal epilepsy in infancy and early childhood Clinical article.</a> J Neurosurg-Pediatr. 9, 290-300 (2012).</li><li>Gonzalez-Martinez, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stereoelectroencephalography+in+the+&amp;#34;difficult+to+localize&amp;#34;+refractory+focal+epilepsy:+early+experience+from+a+North+American+epilepsy+center.">Stereoelectroencephalography in the &amp;#34;difficult to localize&amp;#34; refractory focal epilepsy: early experience from a North American epilepsy center.</a> Epilepsia. 54, 323-330 (2013).</li><li>Vadera, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stereoelectroencephalography+following+subdural+grid+placement+for+difficult+to+localize+epilepsy.">Stereoelectroencephalography following subdural grid placement for difficult to localize epilepsy.</a> Neurosurgery. 72, 723-729 (2013).</li><li>Hill, N. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recording+human+electrocorticographic+(ECoG)+signals+for+neuroscientific+research+and+real-time+functional+cortical+mapping.">Recording human electrocorticographic (ECoG) signals for neuroscientific research and real-time functional cortical mapping.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE. , (2012).</li><li>Ibanez, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motor-language+coupling:+direct+evidence+from+early+Parkinson's+disease+and+intracranial+cortical+recordings.">Motor-language coupling: direct evidence from early Parkinson's disease and intracranial cortical recordings.</a> Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior. 49, 968-984 (2013).</li><li>Caplan, J. B., Madsen, J. R., Raghavachari, S., Kahana, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+patterns+of+brain+oscillations+underlie+two+basic+parameters+of+human+maze+learning.">Distinct patterns of brain oscillations underlie two basic parameters of human maze learning.</a> J Neurophysiol. 86, 368-380 (2001).</li><li>Watrous, A. J., Fried, I., Ekstrom, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+correlates+of+human+hippocampal+delta+and+theta+oscillations+during+navigation.">Behavioral correlates of human hippocampal delta and theta oscillations during navigation.</a> J Neurophysiol. 105, 1747-1755 (2011).</li><li>Roman, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hippocampal+negative+event-related+potential+recorded+in+humans+during+a+simple+sensorimotor+task+occurs+independently+of+motor+execution.">Hippocampal negative event-related potential recorded in humans during a simple sensorimotor task occurs independently of motor execution.</a> Hippocampus. , (2013).</li><li>Jerbi, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exploring+the+electrophysiological+correlates+of+the+default-mode+network+with+intracerebral+EEG.">Exploring the electrophysiological correlates of the default-mode network with intracerebral EEG.</a> Front Syst Neurosci. 4, 27 (2010).</li><li>Krolak-Salmon, P., Henaff, M. A., Vighetto, A., Bertrand, O., Mauguiere, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+amygdala+reaction+to+fear+spreading+in+occipital,+temporal,+and+frontal+cortex:+a+depth+electrode+ERP+study+in+human.">Early amygdala reaction to fear spreading in occipital, temporal, and frontal cortex: a depth electrode ERP study in human.</a> Neuron. 42, 665-676 (2004).</li><li>Hudry, J., Perrin, F., Ryvlin, P., Mauguiere, F., Royet, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+short-term+memory+and+related+amygdala+recordings+in+patients+with+temporal+lobe+epilepsy.">Olfactory short-term memory and related amygdala recordings in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy.</a> Brain. 126, 1851-1863 (2003).</li><li>Rektor, I., Bares, M., Kubova, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Movement-related+potentials+in+the+basal+ganglia:+a+SEEG+readiness+potential+study.">Movement-related potentials in the basal ganglia: a SEEG readiness potential study.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 112, 2146-2153 (2001).</li><li>Rektor, I., Louvel, J., Lamarche, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracerebral+recording+of+potentials+accompanying+simple+limb+movements:+a+SEEG+study+in+epileptic+patients.">Intracerebral recording of potentials accompanying simple limb movements: a SEEG study in epileptic patients.</a> Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 107, 277-286 (1998).</li><li>Mitra, P., Bokil, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Observed Brain Dynamics. , (2008).</li><li>Lachaux, J. P., Axmacher, N., Mormann, F., Halgren, E., Crone, N. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-frequency+neural+activity+and+human+cognition:+past,+present+and+possible+future+of+intracranial+EEG+research.">High-frequency neural activity and human cognition: past, present and possible future of intracranial EEG research.</a> Progress in neurobiology. 98, 279-301 (2012).</li><li>Rogers, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Choosing+between+small,+likely+rewards+and+large,+unlikely+rewards+activates+inferior+and+orbital+prefrontal+cortex.">Choosing between small, likely rewards and large, unlikely rewards activates inferior and orbital prefrontal cortex.</a> The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 19, 9029-9038 (1999).</li><li>Lachaux, J. -. P., Axmacher, N., Mormann, F., Halgren, E., Crone, N. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-frequency+neural+activity+and+human+cognition:+Past,+present+and+possible+future+of+intracranial+EEG+research.">High-frequency neural activity and human cognition: Past, present and possible future of intracranial EEG research.</a> Prog. Neurobiol. 98, 279-301 (2012).</li><li>Gale, J. T., Martinez-Rubio, C., Sheth, S. A., Eskandar, E. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intra-operative+behavioral+tasks+in+awake+humans+undergoing+deep+brain+stimulation+surgery.">Intra-operative behavioral tasks in awake humans undergoing deep brain stimulation surgery.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE. , (2011).</li></ol>

Here we have presented a method for performing intracranial electrophysiological studies in humans as they engage in a behavioral task. This methodology and its simple permutations are important for studying human movement and cognition. While there inherently exists advantages and disadvantages to any technique, recording from intracranial electrodes has advantages over other electrophysiological and imaging techniques. Two of the major advantages are the ability to collect high quality data with better control and desi...

Epilepsy is one of the most common brain disorders, characterized by chronically recurrent seizures resulting from excessive electrical discharges from groups of neurons. Epilepsy affects about 50 million people worldwide and approximately 40% of all individuals with epilepsy have intractable seizures that cannot completely be controlled by medical therapy1. Surgery may result in seizure free status if the brain areas responsible for the generation of seizures (the epileptogenic zone - EZ) are localized and surgically removed or disconnected. In order to define the anatomical location of the EZ and its proximity with possible cortical and subcortical eloquent areas, an array of non-invasive tools are available: analysis of seizure semiology, video-scalp electroencephalographic recordings (ictal and interictal recordings), neuropsychological testing, magnetoencephalography (MEG) and MRI2. When the noninvasive data is insufficient to precisely define the location of the hypothetical EZ, when there is the suspicion of early involvement of eloquent cortical and subcortical areas or when there is the possibility for multi-focal seizures, chronic invasive monitoring may be required3,4.
Methods of chronic invasive monitoring for defining the location and boundaries of an EZ may include subdural grids and strips, with electrodes placed on the brain&#8217;s surface, and stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG), when multiple depth electrodes are placed in the brain in a three-dimensional fashion. Subdural intracranial recordings were initially reported in 1939 when Penfield and colleagues used epidural single contact electrodes in a patient with an old left temporal-parietal fracture and whose pneumoencephalography disclosed diffuse cerebral atrophy5 . Subsequently, the use of subdural grid arrays became more popular after multiple publications during the 1980&#39;s demonstrated their safety and efficacy6. The SEEG method was developed and popularized in France by Jean Tailarach and Jean Bancaud during the 50&#8217;s and has been mostly used in France and Italy as the method of choice for invasive mapping in refractory focal epilepsy7-9.
The principle of SEEG is based on anatomo-electro-clinical correlations, which takes as its main principle the 3-dimensional spatial-temporal organization of the epileptic discharge within the brain in correlation with seizure semiology. The implantation strategy is individualized, with electrode placement based on a preimplantation hypothesis that takes into consideration the primary organization of the epileptiform activity and the hypothetical epileptic network involved in the propagation of seizures. According to several European and recent North American reports, SEEG methodology enables precise recordings from deep cortical and subcortical structures, multiple noncontiguous lobes, and bilateral explorations while avoiding the need for large craniotomies10-15. Afterwards, postoperative images are taken to obtain the exact anatomical position of the implanted electrodes. Subsequently, a monitoring period starts in which patients remain in the hospital for a period of 1 to 4 weeks in order to record interictal and ictal activities from the implanted electrodes. This monitoring period is an opportune time for studying brain function using event-related SEEG analysis, as there is no added risk and the patient typically views the research study as a welcome reprieve from the mundane monitoring period. The recordings garnered from intracranial electrodes are not only vital to improved evaluation and care of epilepsy patients, but additionally provide the exceptional opportunity to study human brain activity during behavioral paradigms.
Several researchers have already realized the opportunity to study invasive recordings from epilepsy patients. Hill et al. reported on the methodology for recording electrocorticographic (ECoG) signals from patients for functional cortical mapping16. ECoG recordings have also provided insight to motor-language coupling17. Patients with implanted depth electrodes have performed navigational tasks to study brain oscillations in memory, learning18 and movement19. Depth electrode recordings were also used to study paradigms with otherwise unattainable temporal resolution such as hippocampal evoked activity20, neural activity in the default-mode network21, and the temporal course of emotional processing22. Hudry et al studied patients with temporal lobe epilepsy who had SEEG electrodes implanted into their amygdala for short-term olfactory stimuli matching23. Another group has studied simple limb movements such as hand flexion or unilateral movement of the hand or foot in healthy brain sites from epileptic patients with implanted SEEG24,25.
The studies described above are a small sampling of a very diverse collection of relevant literature. There exists an insurmountable potential to learn and understand how the human brain works using a combination of behavioral tasks and intracranial recordings. While there are other methods for achieving this goal, intracranial recordings possess several benefits including high temporal and spatial resolution as well as access to deeper structures. The authors aim to describe the general methodology for recording from patients with intracranial electrodes during behavioral tasks. However, there are several deterrents and barriers to successfully completing clinical research in patients receiving care. Limitations, confounding effects, and significance of this research will also be identified and explored.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>InMotion ARM</td>
			<td>Interactive Motion Technologies</td>
			<td>InMotion Arm</td>
			<td><a href="http://interactive-motion.com/inmotion-arm-the-new-standard-of-care/">http://interactive-motion.com/inmotion-arm-the-new-standard-of-care/</a> 
			Equipment our lab used, can use other equipment to collect data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>Mathworks Inc</td>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.mathworks.com/">http://www.mathworks.com/</a> 
			Need version r2007b or higher to run Monkeylogic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data Acquisition Toolbox</td>
			<td>Mathworks Inc</td>
			<td>Data Acquisition Toolbox</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/daq/">http://www.mathworks.com/products/daq/</a> 
			Must have to run Monkeylogic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image Processing Toolbox</td>
			<td>Mathworks Inc</td>
			<td>Image Processing Toolbox</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.mathworks.com/products/image/">http://www.mathworks.com/products/image/</a> 
			Must have to run Monkeylogic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monkeylogic</td>
			<td>Wael Asaad and David Freedman</td>
			<td>Monkeylogic</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.brown.edu/Research/monkeylogic/">http://www.brown.edu/Research/monkeylogic/</a> 
			Free download, must have MATLAB to run</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chronux&#160;</td>
			<td>Medametrics, LLC&#160;</td>
			<td>Data Processing Toolbox</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.chronux.org/">http://www.chronux.org/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brainstorm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>MEG/EEG Analysis Application</td>
			<td><a href="http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/">http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laptop</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Latitude E5530</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.dell.com/us/business/p/latitude-e5530/pd?ST=dell%20latitude%20e5530&amp;dgc=ST&amp;cid=263756&amp;lid=4781504&amp;acd=12309152537461010">http://www.dell.com/us/business/p/latitude-e5530/pd?ST=dell%20latitude%20e5530&#38;dgc=ST&#38;cid=263756&#38;lid=4781504&#38;acd=12309152537461010</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NI Card</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>NI USB-6008</td>
			<td><a href="http://sine.ni.com/nips/cds/view/p/lang/en/nid/201986">http://sine.ni.com/nips/cds/view/p/lang/en/nid/201986</a> 
			12-Bit, 10 kS/s Low-Cost Multifunction DAQ</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

performing behavioral tasks in subjects with intracranial electrodes

Patients having stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) electrode, subdural grid or depth electrode implants have a multitude of electrodes implanted in different areas of their brain for the localization of their seizure focus and eloquent areas. After implantation, the patient must remain in the hospital until the pathological area of brain is found and possibly resected. During this time, these patients offer a unique opportunity to the research community because any number of behavioral paradigms can be performed to uncover the neural correlates that guide behavior. Here we present a method for recording brain activity from intracranial implants as subjects perform a behavioral task designed to assess decision-making and reward encoding. All electrophysiological data from the intracranial electrodes are recorded during the behavioral task, allowing for the examination of the many brain areas involved in a single function at time scales relevant to behavior. Moreover, and unlike animal studies, human patients can learn a wide variety of behavioral tasks quickly, allowing for the ability to perform more than one task in the same subject or for performing controls. Despite the many advantages of this technique for understanding human brain function, there are also methodological limitations that we discuss, including environmental factors, analgesic effects, time constraints and recordings from diseased tissue. This method may be easily implemented by any institution that performs intracranial assessments; providing the opportunity to directly examine human brain function during behavior.

In these results we present the analysis of the SEEG data from the limbic system captured in one subject playing the War Task. We can demonstrate that various aspects of the War Task evoke significant gamma-band (40 - 150 Hz) modulation in the limbic system (Figure 1). As seen, in the visual cortex, the presentation of an object on the screen results in a fast latency (~200 msec) wide band response regardless of the task contingency. In addition, there appears to be differences in the duration of the res...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Performing Behavioral Tasks in Subjects with Intracranial Electrodes at JoVE.com

Performing Behavioral Tasks in Subjects with Intracranial Electrodes

Patients implanted with intracranial electrodes provide a unique opportunity to record neurological data from multiple areas of the brain while the patient performs behavioral tasks. Here, we present a method of recording from implanted patients that can be reproducible at other institutions with access to this patient population.

Patients having stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) electrode, subdural grid or depth electrode implants have a multitude of electrodes implanted in ...

performing-behavioral-tasks-in-subjects-with-intracranial-electrodes

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Study Motor Skill Learning by Single-pellet Reaching Tasks in Mice

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and retrieve food rewards positioned at a specific location, their motor performance (defined as accuracy and speed) improves progressively over time, and plateaus after persistent training. Once such reaching skill is mastered, its further maintenance does not require constant practice. Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task to study the acquisition and maintenance of skilled forelimb movements in mice. In this video, we first describe the behaviors of mice that are commonly encountered in this learning and memory paradigm, and then discuss how to categorize these behaviors and quantify the observed results. Combined with mouse genetics, this paradigm can be utilized as a behavioral platform to explore the anatomical underpinnings, physiological properties, and molecular mechanisms of learning and memory.

Persistent practice improves the precision of coordinated movements.&#160;Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task, which is designed to assess the learning and memory of forelimb skill in mice.&#160;

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and ...

Behavioral Phenotyping of Murine Disease Models with the Integrated Behavioral Station (INBEST)

Due to rapid advances in genetic engineering, small rodents have become the preferred subjects in many disciplines of biomedical research. In studies of chronic CNS disorders, there is an increasing demand for murine models with high validity at the behavioral level. However, multiple pathogenic mechanisms and complex functional deficits often impose challenges to reliably measure and interpret behavior of chronically sick mice. Therefore, the assessment of peripheral pathology and a behavioral profile at several time points using a battery of tests are required. Video-tracking, behavioral spectroscopy, and remote acquisition of physiological measures are emerging technologies that allow for comprehensive, accurate, and unbiased behavioral analysis in a home-base-like setting. This report describes a refined phenotyping protocol, which includes a custom-made monitoring apparatus (Integrated Behavioral Station, INBEST) that focuses on prolonged measurements of basic functional outputs, such as spontaneous activity, food/water intake and motivated behavior in a relatively stress-free environment. Technical and conceptual improvements in INBEST design may further promote reproducibility and standardization of behavioral studies.

Behavioral Phenotyping of Murine Disease Models with the Integrated Behavioral Station INBEST

Prolonged and comprehensive monitoring of mice in a home-cage environment provides a deeper understanding of aberrant behavior in murine models of brain diseases. This paper describes the Integrated Behavioral Station (INBEST) as the key component of contemporary behavioral analysis.

Due to rapid advances in genetic engineering, small rodents have become the preferred subjects in many disciplines of biomedical research. In studies of ...

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate drug-seeking behavior and prompt relapse in abstinent drug users. We have developed a procedure to study the behavioral and neural processes that mediate the impact of context on alcohol-seeking behavior in rats. Following acclimation to the taste and pharmacological effects of 15% ethanol in the home cage, male Long-Evans rats receive Pavlovian discrimination training (PDT) in conditioning chambers. In each daily (Mon-Fri) PDT session, 16 trials each of two different 10 sec auditory conditioned stimuli occur. During one stimulus, the CS+, 0.2 ml of 15% ethanol is delivered into a fluid port for oral consumption. The second stimulus, the CS-, is not paired with ethanol. Across sessions, entries into the fluid port during the CS+ increase, whereas entries during the CS- stabilize at a lower level, indicating that a predictive association between the CS+ and ethanol is acquired. During PDT each chamber is equipped with a specific configuration of visual, olfactory and tactile contextual stimuli. Following PDT, extinction training is conducted in the same chamber that is now equipped with a different configuration of contextual stimuli. The CS+ and CS- are presented as before, but ethanol is withheld, which causes a gradual decline in port entries during the CS+. At test, rats are placed back into the PDT context and presented with the CS+ and CS- as before, but without ethanol. This manipulation triggers a robust and selective increase in the number of port entries made during the alcohol predictive CS+, with no change in responding during the CS-. This effect, referred to as context-induced renewal, illustrates the powerful capacity of contexts associated with alcohol consumption to stimulate alcohol-seeking behavior in response to Pavlovian alcohol cues.

A procedure to study the capacity of an alcohol associated environmental context to trigger the renewal of alcohol-seeking behavior in rats is described.

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate ...

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is relatively flexible with respect to participant positioning and allows for some head movements during tasks. Additionally, it is inexpensive, light weight, and portable, with very few contraindications to its use. This presents a unique opportunity to study functional brain activity during motor tasks in individuals who are typically developing, as well as those with movement disorders, such as cerebral palsy. An additional consideration when studying movement disorders, however, is the quality of actual movements performed and the potential for additional, unintended movements. Therefore, concurrent monitoring of both blood flow changes in the brain and actual movements of the body during testing is required for appropriate interpretation of fNIRS results. Here, we show a protocol for the combination of fNIRS with muscle and kinematic monitoring during motor tasks. We explore gait, a unilateral multi-joint movement (cycling), and two unilateral single-joint movements (isolated ankle dorsiflexion, and isolated hand squeezing). The techniques presented can be useful in studying both typical and atypical motor control, and can be modified to investigate a broad range of tasks and scientific questions.

Monitoring brain activity during upright motor tasks is of great value when investigating the neural source of movement disorders. Here, we demonstrate a protocol that combines functional near infrared spectroscopy with continuous monitoring of muscle and kinematic activity during 4 types of motor tasks.

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is ...

Measurement of Vibration Detection Threshold and Tactile Spatial Acuity in Human Subjects

Tests that allow the precise determination of psychophysical thresholds for vibration and grating orientation provide valuable information about mechanosensory function that are relevant for clinical diagnosis as well as for basic research. Here, we describe two psychophysical tests designed to determine the vibration detection threshold (automated system) and tactile spatial acuity (handheld device). Both procedures implement a two-interval forced-choice and a transformed-rule up and down experimental paradigm. These tests have been used to obtain mechanosensory profiles for individuals from distinct human cohorts such as twins or people with sensorineural deafness.

Here, we present protocols to determine vibration detection thresholds and tactile acuity using psychophysical methods in man.

Tests that allow the precise determination of psychophysical thresholds for vibration and grating orientation provide valuable information about ...

Using Fiberless, Wearable fNIRS to Monitor Brain Activity in Real-world Cognitive Tasks

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular coupling, fNIRS is able to measure the haemoglobin concentration changes secondary to neuronal activity. Compared to other neuroimaging techniques, fNIRS represents a good compromise in terms of spatial and temporal resolution. Moreover, it is portable, lightweight, less sensitive to motion artifacts and does not impose significant physical restraints. It is therefore appropriate to monitor a wide range of cognitive tasks (e.g., auditory, gait analysis, social interaction) and different age populations (e.g., new-borns, adults, elderly people). The recent development of fiberless fNIRS devices has opened the way to new applications in neuroscience research. This represents a unique opportunity to study functional activity during real-world tests, which can be more sensitive and accurate in assessing cognitive function and dysfunction than lab-based tests. This study explored the use of fiberless fNIRS to monitor brain activity during a real-world prospective memory task. This protocol is performed outside the lab and brain haemoglobin concentration changes are continuously measured over the prefrontal cortex while the subject walks around in order to accomplish several different tasks.

Monitoring brain activity outside the lab without physical constraints presents methodological challenges. A fiberless, wearable functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) system was used to measure brain activity during an ecological prospective memory task. It was demonstrated that this system could be used to monitor brain activity during non-lab based experiments.

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular ...

Event-related Potentials During Target-response Tasks to Study Cognitive Processes of Upper Limb Use in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy

Unilateral Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is a very common cause of disability in childhood. It is characterized by unilateral motor impairments that are frequently dominated in the upper limb. In addition to a reduced movement capacity of the affected upper limb, several children with unilateral CP show a reduced awareness of the remaining movement capacity of that limb. This phenomenon of disregarding the preserved capacity of the affected upper limb is regularly referred to as Developmental Disregard (DD). Different theories have been postulated to explain DD, each suggesting slightly different guidelines for therapy. Still, cognitive processes that might additionally contribute to DD in children with unilateral CP have never been directly studied. The current protocol was developed to study cognitive aspects involved in upper limb control in children with unilateral CP with and without DD. This was done by recording event-related potentials (ERPs) extracted from the ongoing EEG during target-response tasks asking for a hand-movement response. ERPs consist of several components, each of them associated with a well-defined cognitive process (e.g., the N1 with early attention processes, the N2 with cognitive control and the P3 with cognitive load and mental effort). Due to its excellent temporal resolution, the ERP technique enables to study several covert cognitive processes preceding overt motor responses and thus allows insight into the cognitive processes that might contribute to the phenomenon of DD. Using this protocol adds a new level of explanation to existing behavioral studies and opens new avenues to the broader implementation of research on cognitive aspects of developmental movement restrictions in children.

Several children with unilateral Cerebral Palsy seem to disregard the preserved capacity of their affected upper limb. This Developmental Disregard is extensively described in the literature but the involved cognitive processes have not been studied. To study underlying cognitive factors of upper limb control, an event-related potential protocol was developed.

Unilateral Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is a very common cause of disability in childhood. It is characterized by unilateral ...

Comparing the Frequency Effect Between the Lexical Decision and Naming Tasks in Chinese

In psycholinguistic research, the frequency effect can be one of the indicators for eligible experimental tasks that examine the nature of lexical access. Usually, only one of those tasks is chosen to examine lexical access in a study. Using two exemplar experiments, this paper introduces an approach to include both the lexical decision task and the naming task in a study. In the first experiment, the stimuli were Chinese characters with frequency and regularity manipulated. In the second experiment, the stimuli were switched to Chinese two-character words, in which the word frequency and the regularity of the leading character were manipulated. The logic of these two exemplar experiments was to explore some important issues such as the role of phonology on recognition by comparing the frequency effect between both the tasks. The results revealed different patterns of lexical access from those reported in the alphabetic systems. The results of Experiment 1 manifested a larger frequency effect in the naming task as compared to the LDT, when the stimuli were Chinese characters. And it is noteworthy that, in Experiment 1, when the stimuli were regular Chinese characters, the frequency effect observed in the naming task was roughly equivalent to that in the LDT. However, a smaller frequency effect was shown in the naming task as compared to the LDT, when the stimuli were switched to Chinese two-character words in Experiment 2. Taking advantage of the respective demands and characteristics in both tasks, researchers can obtain a more complete and precise picture of character/word recognition.

Researchers adopt both the lexical decision task and the naming task to investigate some important topics such as character/word recognition by comparing the frequency effect between these two tasks. This article introduces this approach through two exemplar experiments and elaborates on the underlying logic.

In psycholinguistic research, the frequency effect can be one of the indicators for eligible experimental tasks that examine the nature of lexical access. ...

Continuous Noninvasive Measuring of Crayfish Cardiac and Behavioral Activities

A crayfish is a pivotal aquatic organism that serves both as a practical biological model for behavioral and physiological studies of invertebrates and as a useful biological indicator of water quality. Even though crayfish cannot directly specify the substances that cause water quality deterioration, they can immediately (within a few seconds) warn humans of water quality deterioration via acute changes in their cardiac and behavioral activities.
In this study, we present a noninvasive method that is simple enough to be implemented under various conditions due to a combination of simplicity and reliability in one model.
This approach, in which the biological organisms are implemented into environmental evaluation processes, provides a reliable and timely alarm for warning of and preventing acute water deterioration in an ambient environment. Therefore, this noninvasive system based on crayfish physiological and ethological parameter recordings was investigated for the detection of changes in an aquatic environment. This system is now applied at a local brewery for controlling&#160;quality of the water used for beverage production, but it can be used at any water treatment and supply facility for continuous, real-time water quality evaluation and for regular laboratory investigations of crayfish cardiac physiology and behavior.

This article presents a noninvasive biomonitoring system for the continuous recording and analyses of crayfish cardiac and locomotor activities. This system consists of a near-infrared optical sensor, a video-tracking module, and software for evaluating crayfish heartbeats that reflects its physiological condition and characterizes crayfish behavior during heartbeat fluctuations.

A crayfish is a pivotal aquatic organism that serves both as a practical biological model for behavioral and physiological studies of invertebrates and as ...