Name: a polyaniline-based sensor of nucleic acids
Uploaded: 2016-11-01T10:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Polyaniline-based Sensor of Nucleic Acids at JoVE.com

The authors have nothing to disclose.

1. Processable PANI Synthesis
<ol>
	<li>Dissolve aniline (1 ml, 11 mmol) completely in 60 ml of chloroform in a 250 ml round-bottom flask. Stir at 600 rpm for 5 min and cool to 0-5 &#176;C with ice. This usually takes 15-20 min (Figure 2A).</li>
	<li>Add sodium dodecyl benzene sulphonate (NaDBS) (7.44 g, 21 mmol) to the aniline solution in a round-bottomed flask while stirring at 600 rpm.</li>
	<li>Dissolve ammonium persulphate (APS) (3.072 g, 13.5 mmol) in 20 ml water and add all of it drop-wise over ...

<ol>
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P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utilizing+Intrinsic+Properties+of+Polyaniline+to+Detect+Nucleic+Acid+Hybridization+through+UV-Enhanced+Electrostatic+Interaction.">Utilizing Intrinsic Properties of Polyaniline to Detect Nucleic Acid Hybridization through UV-Enhanced Electrostatic Interaction.</a> Biomacromolecules. 16 (10), 3217-3225 (2015).</li><li>Song, E., Choi, J. -. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conducting+Polyaniline+Nanowire+and+Its+Applications+in+Chemiresistive+Sensing.">Conducting Polyaniline Nanowire and Its Applications in Chemiresistive Sensing.</a> Nanomaterials. 3 (3), 498 (2013).</li><li>Liu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polyaniline+nanofibres+for+fluorescent+nucleic+acid+detection.">Polyaniline nanofibres for fluorescent nucleic acid detection.</a> Nanoscale. 3 (3), 967-969 (2011).</li><li>Oliveira Brett, A. M., Chiorcea, A. -. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+Force+Microscopy+of+DNA+Immobilized+onto+a+Highly+Oriented+Pyrolytic+Graphite+Electrode+Surface.">Atomic Force Microscopy of DNA Immobilized onto a Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite Electrode Surface.</a> Langmuir. 19 (9), 3830-3839 (2003).</li><li>Zhang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly(m-Phenylenediamine)+Nanospheres+and+Nanorods:+Selective+Synthesis+and+Their+Application+for+Multiplex+Nucleic+Acid+Detection.">Poly(m-Phenylenediamine) Nanospheres and Nanorods: Selective Synthesis and Their Application for Multiplex Nucleic Acid Detection.</a> PLoS ONE. 6 (6), e20569 (2011).</li><li>Namgoong, H., Woo, D. J., Lee, S. -. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micro-chemical+structure+of+polyaniline+synthesized+by+self-stabilized+dispersion+polymerization.">Micro-chemical structure of polyaniline synthesized by self-stabilized dispersion polymerization.</a> Macromol Res. 15 (7), 633-639 (2007).</li><li>John, A., Palaniappan, S., Djurado, D., Pron, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-step+preparation+of+solution+processable+conducting+polyaniline+by+inverted+emulsion+polymerization+using+didecyl+ester+of+4-sulfophthalic+acid+as+multifunctional+dopant.">One-step preparation of solution processable conducting polyaniline by inverted emulsion polymerization using didecyl ester of 4-sulfophthalic acid as multifunctional dopant.</a> J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem. 46 (3), 1051-1057 (2008).</li><li>El-Dib, F. I., Sayed, W. M., Ahmed, S. 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J., Oh, S. -. G., Han, M. -. G., Im, S. -. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+Polyaniline+Nanoparticles+in+Micellar+Solutions+as+Polymerization+Medium.">Preparation of Polyaniline Nanoparticles in Micellar Solutions as Polymerization Medium.</a> Langmuir. 16 (14), 5841-5845 (2000).</li><li>Scales, C. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corona-Stabilized+Interpolyelectrolyte+Complexes+of+siRNA+with+Nonimmunogenic,+Hydrophilic/Cationic+Block+Copolymers+Prepared+by+Aqueous+RAFT+Polymerization&#8224;.">Corona-Stabilized Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes of siRNA with Nonimmunogenic, Hydrophilic/Cationic Block Copolymers Prepared by Aqueous RAFT Polymerization&#8224;.</a> Macromolecules. 39 (20), 6871-6881 (2006).</li><li>Kadashchuk, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localized+trions+in+conjugated+polymers.">Localized trions in conjugated polymers.</a> Phys Rev B. 76 (23), 235205 (2007).</li><li>Chang, H., Yuan, Y., Shi, N., Guan, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemical+DNA+Biosensor+Based+on+Conducting+Polyaniline+nanotube+Array.">Electrochemical DNA Biosensor Based on Conducting Polyaniline nanotube Array.</a> Anal. Chem. 79, 5111-5115 (2007).</li><li>Zhu, N., Chang, Z., He, P., Fang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemically+fabricated+polyaniline+nanowire-modified+electrode+for+voltammetric+detection+of+DNA+hybridization.">Electrochemically fabricated polyaniline nanowire-modified electrode for voltammetric detection of DNA hybridization.</a> Eletrochim. Acta. 51, 3758-3762 (2006).</li></ol>

A PANI-based sensor of nucleic acids requires solubilization of the polymer in water in order to interact with DNA and RNA. The dispersion of PANI in water is accomplished using surfactants, forming micelles as previously reported8. In addition to the NaDBS used here other anionic surfactants like dodecyl ester of 4-sulfophthalic acid, nonionic surfactants like nonyl phenol ethoxylate, or cationic surfactants like cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide could also be used for synthesis of processable PANI9,10</su...

Conjugated polymers provide many options for molecular sensors. This includes fluorescence, electronic, and colorimetric responses1. There have been many efforts to incorporate conjugated polymers in nucleic acid sensors. However, most systems require secondary detection, limiting sensing options2. Recently, we reported a conjugated polymer-based sensor platform built on polyaniline (PANI) that exploits properties of this polymer, creating a label-free system3. PANI is an extensively conjugated electro-active polymer with properties such as fluorescence and resistance that are suitable for measuring biological systems4. The excitons within the structure are not localized leading to mobility of the positive charge between monomeric subunits. This provides a flexible scaffold of positive charges that can interact with the negatively charged backbone of DNA5,6. Importantly, electrostatically attached DNA is orientated such that nitrogenous bases can participate in base pairing. Association with DNA alters the electronic properties of PANI, an effect that can be enhanced by UV irradiation (Figure 1)3. Using this system, oligonucleotides complementary to target nucleic acids can be immobilized on PANI. Multiple studies have demonstrated that upon hybridization electrostatically adsorbed oligonucleotides dissociate from PANI or other cationic matrices due to conformational changes caused by the switch to a double-stranded DNA structure3,5,7.
In a sensor system where probe attachment modulates conjugated polymer properties, hybridization events can be transduced without labels or enzymatic modification of probes or target nucleic acids. Conjugated polymers offer great flexibility in detection methods, one of which is fluorescence. Through monitoring PANI fluorescence, concentrations of target nucleic acids as low as 10-11 M (10 pM) can be detected3. Detection is rapid, occurring within 15 minutes of hybridization, and specific where a single mismatch in a target molecule can be differentiated3. 
Fabrication of PANI-sensors is straightforward. High molecular weight PANI can be generated that is well-dispersed in water using standard synthesis procedures involving aniline monomer, surfactant, and controlled addition of an oxidant. Yield can be very high and unreacted oxidant removed by washing with water, ensuring no further PANI growth. PANI-probe association occurs spontaneously upon mixture, and complex formation is enhanced by mild UV exposure. Hybridization can be carried out immediately, and the changes in PANI fluorescence assayed following a short incubation. The simplicity of this technology makes it highly accessible to many laboratories.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:227px;">Aniline&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">A7401-500&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:663px;">ACS, liquid, refrigerated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ammonium peroxydisulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>A682-500&#160;</td>
			<td>ACS, crystalline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate</td>
			<td>Pfaltz &#38; Bauer&#160;</td>
			<td>D56340&#160;</td>
			<td>95% solid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Chloroform&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>MCX 10601&#160;</td>
			<td>Liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DNA primers&#160;</td>
			<td>MWG operon&#160;</td>
			<td>n/a&#160;</td>
			<td>custom DNA sequence ~20bps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microplate&#160;</td>
			<td>USA Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>1402-9800&#160;</td>
			<td>96 well, polypropylene as it is unreactive to chloroform</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microplate Adhesive Film</td>
			<td>USA Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>2920-0000&#160;</td>
			<td>Reduces well-to-well contamination, sample spillage and evaporation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>12-544-D&#160;</td>
			<td>PANI coated on UV irradiated cover glass</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">UV crosslinker&#160;</td>
			<td>UVP&#160;</td>
			<td>HL-2000&#160;</td>
			<td>Energy: X100 &#956;J/cm2; Time: 2min</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hybridization Oven</td>
			<td>VWR&#160;</td>
			<td>01014705 T&#160;</td>
			<td>Temperature: 400C; with rocking for 15 min</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Glass Apparatus&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Three necked round bottom flask for reaction; dropping funnel, stoppers, condenser, separating funnel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems&#160;</td>
			<td>Leica IMC S80</td>
			<td>Magnification 20X; Pseudo color 536 nm; Exposure 86 ms; Gain 1.0X; Gamma 1.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microplate Reader</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices&#160;</td>
			<td>89429-536</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a polyaniline-based sensor of nucleic acids

Detection of nucleic acids is at the center of diagnostic technologies used in research and the clinic. Standard approaches used in these technologies rely on enzymatic modification that can introduce bias and artifacts. A critical element of next generation detection platforms will be direct molecular sensing, thereby avoiding a need for amplification or labels. Advanced nanomaterials may provide the suitable chemical modalities to realize label-free sensors. Conjugated polymers are ideal for biological sensing, possessing properties compatible with biomolecules and exhibit high sensitivity to localized environmental changes. In this article, a method is presented for detecting nucleic acids using the electroconductive polymer polyaniline. Simple DNA "probe" oligonucleotides complementary to target nucleic acids are attached electrostatically to the polymer, creating a sensor system that can differentiate single nucleotide differences in target molecules. Outside the specific and unbiased nature of this technology, it is highly cost effective.

Figure 2A captures the reaction setup at the start of the polymerization process, i.e., before APS addition. Micelle formation is the initial step in the reaction process-PANI synthesis occurs at the micellar interface. Figure 2B shows a milky solution after 5 min. 30 min after APS is added the reaction turns to a slightly brown color. Figure 2C shows the color change associated with the formation of oligomers. Figure 2D<...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Polyaniline-based Sensor of Nucleic Acids at JoVE.com

A Polyaniline-based Sensor of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are common analytes for assessing biological systems; however, bias from enzymatic manipulation can cause concern. Here a method is described for label-free detection of nucleic acids using polyaniline. This sensitive, cost-effective sensor technology can distinguish single nucleotide differences between molecules.

Detection of nucleic acids is at the center of diagnostic technologies used in research and the clinic. Standard approaches used in these technologies ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to synthesize water dispersed polyaniline that could be used to detect nucleic acids in a label-free fashion. This technique is a cost-effective method for detecting nucleic acids. Labs that adopt it will find it easy, robust and sensitive.The main advantage of the technique is that it is label free and can be used to directly detect RNAs and DNAs without the need for enzymatic manipulation. This technique has potential for new diagnostic technologies and since it doesn't use a label, it can be used for processing patient samples with little manipulation. Visual demonstration will help demystify the sensor.This platform includes polymer science and biology, which seem very exotic but is in fact, extraordinarily easy to implement. Dissolve aniline completely in 60 ml of chloroform in a 250 ml round-bottom flask. After stirring at 600 RPM for five minutes, cool to zero to five degrees Celsius with ice.This usually takes 15 to 20 minutes. Next, add sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate to the aniline solution in a round-bottom flask while stirring at 600 RPM. Dissolve ammonium persulfate in 20 ml of water and add it dropwise over 30 minutes to avoid overheating the reaction.Carry out the reaction at zero to five degrees Celsius for 24 hours. Observe the reaction mixture initially turn milky-white after 15 minutes then dark brown after two hours and finally to dark green after 24 hours. Then allow it to reach room temperature for another 24 hours.Filter the PANI sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate solution with a buchner funnel. Mix the filtrate with 80 ml of chloroform and 120 ml of water in a separation funnel. Incubate the solution for 24 hours at room temperature then collect the dark green PANI from the separation funnel, leaving unreacted sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate and APS in the aqueous supernatant.Dilute PANI solution 10 X with chloroform water then mix 200 microliters of diluted PANI with 6.4 micromoles of probe DNA oligonucleotides by gentle rocking for 15 minutes in a microfuge tube. Irradiate the PANI DNA solution with 1200 microjoules per square centimeter of UV in a crosslinker for two minutes. It is critical that UV exposure is limited to the indicated amount.Extended exposure to UV compromises the fluorescence change in PANI, likely due to covalent cross-leaking of PANI and DNA. Pellet complexes by centrifugation at 17, 000 x g for six minutes and wash with phosphate buffered saline or PBS. After pelleting a second time, resuspend in PBS.Add eight microliters of 100 micromoler complementary DNA oligonucleotides or target nucleic acids to 200 microliters of PANI probe complexes. Perform hybridization by rocking the solution mixture for 15 minutes at 40 degree Celsius. After pelleting the PANI complexes by centrifugation at 17, 000 x g for six minutes, wash with PBS and resuspend in water.Add PANI from different treatments into a 96-well microplate and measure emission fluorescence in the 270 to 850 nanometer range by excitation at 250 nanometers. An emission peak for PANI should be observed around 500 nanometers. To perform fluorescence microscopy measurement of the hyberdized duplex, drop coat PANI on a borosilicate glass cover slip and dry at 40 degrees Celsius for 48 hours.Add eight microliters of 100 micromoler probe on a dried PANI film then irradiate it with UV light for two minutes. Following the radiation, wash the PANI probe film with PBS and dry at 40 degrees Celsius for 48 hours. Perform hybridization for 15 minutes by adding target nucleic acids.This could be a biological sample or a controlled target oligonucleotide. Follow with a PBS wash. Obtain the fluorescent images at 40 x magnification with a 500 nanometer long pass filter.Shown here is the electrostatic interaction of PANI and DNA probes enhanced by UV irradiation. Hybridization of the target nucleic acid triggers duplex formation, changing structural confirmation, which results in dissociation of the probe target from the PANI surface. This figure shows the change in PANI fluorescence in the absence or presence of probe, both in solution and solid coating medium.The increase in fluorescence is due to electron flux from negatively charged DNA, increasing polymer electron density. Upon hybridization of complimentary target oligonucleotides, probes detach, leading the restoration of basil fluorescence. Conversely, hybridization with single mismatched target oligonucleotides does not result in this restoration of basil fluorescence.The main novelty of this technique is that it uses mild UV for an exact interaction and that actually helps it to distinguish non-specific and light interaction. Once mastered, this technique could take up to two hours excluding the senses time and the drying time of the coatings. While trying this procedure, it's important to remember that the DNA dissolves in water and the acidic tea actually changes the electronic property of the PANI.After watching this video, viewers should have good understanding of how to synthesize water dispersed polyaniline and use its fluorescent properties to detect nucleic acids. They will be able to immobilize Probe DNAs and perform hybridization to detect targets. Working with the monomer, it's important to remember that this synthesis is hazardous and should be done in a hood with the protective equipments like safety glasses, gloves and lab coats.

a-polyaniline-based-sensor-of-nucleic-acids

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Identification of Fatty Acids in Bacillus cereus

The Bacillus species contain branched chain and unsaturated fatty acids (FAs) with diverse positions of the methyl branch (iso or anteiso) and of the double bond. Changes in FA composition play a crucial role in the adaptation of bacteria to their environment. These modifications entail a change in the ratio of iso versus anteiso branched FAs, and in the proportion of unsaturated FAs relative to saturated FAs, with double bonds created at specific positions. Precise identification of the FA profile is necessary to understand the adaptation mechanisms of Bacillus species.
Many of the FAs from Bacillus are not commercially available. The strategy proposed herein identifies FAs by combining information on the retention time (by calculation of the equivalent chain length (ECL)) with the mass spectra of three types of FA derivatives: fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 4,4-dimethyl oxazoline derivatives (DMOX), and 3-pyridylcarbinyl ester (picolinyl). This method can identify the FAs without the need to purify the unknown FAs.
Comparing chromatographic profiles of FAME prepared from Bacillus cereus with a commercial mixture of standards allows for the identification of straight-chain saturated FAs, the calculation of the ECL, and hypotheses on the identity of the other FAs. FAMEs of branched saturated FAs, iso or anteiso, display a constant negative shift in the ECL, compared to linear saturated FAs with the same number of carbons. FAMEs of unsaturated FAs can be detected by the mass of their molecular ions, and result in a positive shift in the ECL compared to the corresponding saturated FAs.
The branching position of FAs and the double bond position of unsaturated FAs can be identified by the electron ionization mass spectra of picolinyl and DMOX derivatives, respectively. This approach identifies all the unknown saturated branched FAs, unsaturated straight-chain FAs and unsaturated branched FAs from the B. cereus extract.

Identification of Fatty Acids in Bacillus cereus

We propose a protocol to identify fatty acids without the need to purify them. It combines information on the retention times with the mass spectra of three types of fatty acid derivatives: fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 4,4-dimethyl oxazoline derivatives (DMOX), and 3-pyridylcarbinyl esters (picolinyl).

The Bacillus species contain branched chain and unsaturated fatty acids (FAs) with diverse positions of the methyl branch (iso or anteiso) and of the ...

Voltage-clamp Fluorometry in Xenopus Oocytes Using Fluorescent Unnatural Amino Acids

Voltage-Clamp Fluorometry (VCF) has been the technique of choice to investigate the structure and function of electrogenic membrane proteins where real-time measurements of fluorescence and currents simultaneously report on local rearrangements and global function, respectively1. While high-resolution structural techniques such as cryo-electron microscopy or X-ray crystallography provide static images of the proteins of interest, VCF provides dynamic structural data that allows us to link the structural rearrangements (fluorescence) to dynamic functional data (electrophysiology). Until recently, the thiol-reactive chemistry used for site-directed fluorescent labeling of the proteins restricted the scope of the approach because all accessible cysteines, including endogenous ones, will be labeled. It was thus required to construct proteins free of endogenous cysteines. Labeling was also restricted to sites accessible from the extracellular side. This changed with the use of Fluorescent Unnatural Amino Acids (fUAA) to specifically incorporate a small fluorescent probe in response to stop codon suppression using an orthogonal tRNA and tRNA synthetase pair2. The VCF improvement only requires a two-step injection procedure of DNA injection (tRNA/synthetase pair) followed by RNA/fUAA co-injection. Now, labelling both intracellular and buried sites is possible, and the use of VCF has expanded significantly. The VCF technique thereby becomes attractive for studying a wide range of proteins and &#8211; more importantly &#8211; allows investigating numerous cytosolic regulatory mechanisms.

Voltage-clamp Fluorometry in Xenopus Oocytes Using Fluorescent Unnatural Amino Acids

This article describes an enhancement of conventional Voltage-Clamp Fluorometry (VCF) where Fluorescent Unnatural Amino Acids (fUAA) are used instead of maleimide dyes, to probe structural rearrangements in ion channels. The procedure includes Xenopus oocyte DNA injection, RNA/fUAA coinjection, and simultaneous current and fluorescence measurements.

Voltage-Clamp Fluorometry (VCF) has been the technique of choice to investigate the structure and function of electrogenic membrane proteins where ...

Kinetic Screening of Nuclease Activity using Nucleic Acid Probes

Nucleases are a class of enzymes that break down nucleic acids by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds that link the ribose sugars. Nucleases display a variety of vital physiological roles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, ranging from maintaining genome stability to providing protection against pathogens. Altered nuclease activity has been associated with several pathological conditions including bacterial infections and cancer. To this end, nuclease activity has shown great potential to be exploited as a specific biomarker. However, a robust and reproducible screening method based on this activity remains highly desirable.
Herein, we introduce a method that enables screening for nuclease activity using nucleic acid probes as substrates, with the scope of differentiating between pathological and healthy conditions. This method offers the possibility of designing new probe libraries, with increasing specificity, in an iterative manner. Thus, multiple rounds of screening are necessary to refine the probes&#39; design with enhanced features, taking advantage of the availability of chemically modified nucleic acids. The considerable potential of the proposed technology lies in its flexibility, high reproducibility, and versatility for the screening of nuclease activity associated with disease conditions. It is expected that this technology will allow the development of promising diagnostic tools with a great potential in the clinic.

Altered nuclease activity has been associated with different human conditions, underlying its potential as a biomarker. The modular and easy to implement screening methodology presented in this paper allows the selection of specific nucleic acid probes for harnessing nuclease activity as a biomarker of disease.

Nucleases are a class of enzymes that break down nucleic acids by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds that link the ribose sugars. ...

Quantification of Humic and Fulvic Acids in Humate Ores, DOC, Humified Materials and Humic Substance-Containing Commercial Products

The purpose of this method is to provide an accurate and precise concentration of humic (HA) and/or fulvic acids (FA) in soft coals, humic ores and shales, peats, composts and humic substance-containing commercial products. The method is based on the alkaline extraction of test materials, using 0.1 N NaOH as an extractant, and separation of the alkaline soluble humic substances (HS) from nonsoluble products by centrifugation. The pH of the centrifuged alkaline extract is then adjusted to pH 1 with conc. HCl, which results in precipitation of the HA. The precipitated HA are separated from the fulvic fraction (FF) (the fraction of HS that remains in solution,) by centrifugation. The HA is then oven or freeze dried and the ash content of the dried HA determined. The weight of the pure (i.e., ash-free) HA is then divided by the weight of the sample and the resulting fraction multiplied by 100 to determine the % HA in the sample. To determine the FA content, the FF is loaded onto a hydrophobic DAX-8 resin, which adsorbs the FA fraction also referred to as the hydrophobic fulvic acid (HFA). The remaining non-fulvic acid fraction, also called the hydrophilic fulvic fraction (HyFF) is then removed by washing the resin with deionized H2O until all nonabsorbed material is completely removed. The FA is then desorbed with 0.1 N NaOH. The resulting Na-fulvate is then protonated by passing it over a strong H+-exchange resin. The resulting FA is oven or freeze dried, the ash content determined and the concentration in the sample calculated as described above for HA.

This method provides a gravimetric quantification of humic substances (e.g., humic and fulvic acids) on an ash-free basis, in dry and liquid materials from soft coals (i.e., oxidized and non-oxidized lignite and sub-bituminous coal), humate ores and shales, peats, composts and commercial fertilizers and soil amendments.

The purpose of this method is to provide an accurate and precise concentration of humic (HA) and/or fulvic acids (FA) in soft coals, humic ores and ...

Making Precise and Accurate Single-Molecule FRET Measurements using the Open-Source smfBox

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes measurements on freely diffusing biomolecules more accessible. This overview includes a step-by-step protocol for using this instrument to make measurements of precise FRET efficiencies in duplex DNA samples, including details of the sample preparation, instrument setup and alignment, data acquisition, and complete analysis routines. The presented approach, which includes how to determine all the correction factors required for accurate FRET-derived distance measurements, builds on a large body of recent collaborative work across the FRET Community, which aims to establish standard protocols and analysis approaches. This protocol, which is easily adaptable to a range of biomolecular systems, adds to the growing efforts in democratising smFRET for the wider scientific community.

This article provides step-by-step instructions for making fully-corrected accurate FRET measurements on individual, freely diffusing biomolecules using the open-source, inexpensive smfBox, from switch on, through alignment and focusing, to data collection and analysis.

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes ...

Semi-Targeted Ultra-High-Performance Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Phenolic Metabolites in Plasma of Elderly Adults

A group of 23 elderly persons was given functional meals (a beverage and a muffin) specially formulated for the prevention of sarcopenia (age-related loss of muscle mass). Plasma samples were taken at the beginning of the intervention and after 30 days of consuming the functional meals. A semi-targeted ultra-high-performance chromatography coupled with tandem mass (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis was carried out to identify phenolic compounds and their metabolites. Plasma proteins were precipitated with ethanol and the samples were concentrated and resuspended in the mobile phase (1:1 acetonitrile: water) before injection into the UPLC-MS/MS instrument. Separation was carried out with a C18 reverse-phase column, and compounds were identified using their experimental mass, isotopic distribution, and fragment pattern. Compounds of interest were compared to those of data banks and the internal semi-targeted library. Preliminary results showed that the major metabolites identified after the intervention were phenylacetic acid, glycitin, 3-hydroxyphenylvaleric acid, and gomisin M2.

The goal of this protocol is to detect phenolic metabolites in plasma using a semi-targeted chromatography-mass spectrometry method.

A group of 23 elderly persons was given functional meals (a beverage and a muffin) specially formulated for the prevention of sarcopenia (age-related loss ...

Identifying G-Quadruplexes in a DNA Template Using Chemical Mapping

In Vitro Chemical Mapping of G-Quadruplex DNA Structures by Bis-3-Chloropiperidines

G-quadruplexes (G4s) are biologically relevant, non-canonical DNA structures that play an important role in gene expression and diseases, representing significant therapeutic targets. Accessible methods are required for the in vitro characterization of DNA within potential G-quadruplex-forming sequences (PQSs). B-CePs are a class of alkylating agents that have proven to be useful chemical probes for investigation of the higher-order structure of nucleic acids. This paper describes a new chemical mapping assay exploiting the specific reactivity of B-CePs with the N7 of guanines, followed by direct strand cleavage at the alkylated Gs. 
Namely, to distinguish G4 folds from unfolded DNA forms, we use B-CeP 1 to probe the thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA), a 15-mer DNA able to assume the G4 arrangement. Reaction of B-CeP-responding guanines with B-CeP 1 yields products that can be resolved by high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) at a single-nucleotide level by locating individual alkylation adducts and DNA strand cleavage at the alkylated guanines. Mapping using B-CePs is a simple and powerful tool for the in vitro characterization of G-quadruplex-forming DNA sequences, enabling the precise location of guanines involved in the formation of G-tetrads.

Author Spotlight: Characterizing DNA G-Quadruplex by Bis-3-Chloropiperidine Based Chemical Mapping 

Bis-3-chloropiperidines (B-CePs) are useful chemical probes to identify and characterize G-quadruplex structures in DNA templates in vitro. This protocol details the procedure to perform probing reactions with B-CePs and to resolve reaction products by high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

G-quadruplexes (G4s) are biologically relevant, non-canonical DNA structures that play an important role in gene expression and diseases, representing ...

Folding and Probing of Nucleic Acid Constructs

Begin by pipetting G4-TBA, single-stranded TBA, and double-stranded TBA solutions into three different tubes for folding. Heat the samples to 95 degrees Celsius for five minutes. Let them cool slowly to room temperature.Once the tubes have cooled to room temperature, centrifuge the tubes. Next, organize three sets each of seven empty autoclaved 0.5-milliliter tubes. Add three microliters of ultrapure water into each tube.Pipette five microliters of the folded nucleic acid constructs into each tube of the set. Next, add two microliters of either 25 or 250-micromolar B-CEP1 to obtain the final probe concentration of five and 50 micromolar respectively. To the three control tubes, add ultrapure water instead of the compound and incubate all the samples at 37 degrees Celsius.Stop the reaction by placing the tubes at 20 degrees Celsius, then dry the samples in a vacuum centrifuge.

Separation of Polymerized Nucleic Acid Constructs by PAGE 

Begin by preparing a polymerized page gel sandwich. Remove the clamps and paper tape layers, and slowly remove the comb. Thoroughly rinse the wells with distilled water.Place the gel sandwich correctly in the vertical electrophoresis apparatus. Fill the top and bottom reservoirs with TBE buffer. Warm up the plates by performing a pre-run of the gel electrophoresis for at least 30 minutes at 50 watts.Meanwhile, re-suspend the dried samples in five microliters of denaturing gel loading buffer. Next, use a small syringe filled with TBE buffer to flush the urea out of the wells of the gel. Now load the samples into the clean wells, taking note of the odor of loading.Run the gel for two hours at 50 watts or until the bromophenol blue dye has run down 2/3 of the gel. After electrophoresis, turn off the power supply, carefully remove the glass sandwich, and clean the glass plates. Place the gel in a gel imager to detect the fluorescence of the FAM-labeled oligonucleotide bands.After one, four, and 15 hours of incubation, either five or 50 Micromolar Bsep 1 reacted with two micromolar samples of G4 TBA, single-stranded TBA, and double-stranded TBA. Controls were loaded for each set of samples. The G4 TBA substrate showed only one alkylation adduct due to the availability of only G8 for alkylation and subsequent stranded cleavage.Multiple adducts and bands of cleavage products were observed in single and double-stranded TBA, because all guanines were susceptible to Bsep reaction. Probing reaction and tris buffer resulted in inefficient chemical mapping due to the presence of undesired nucleophiles, causing reduced proprioactivity. The G4 TBA samples showed only the formation of adduct without stranded cleavage.For the single and double-stranded TBA, only a 24-hour incubation led to DNA fragmentation, comparable to the 15-hour fragmentation without Tris.

Precision DNAzyme Nanomachines for Discriminative RNA and DNA Analysis

DNAzyme 10-23 - Based Nanomachines for Nucleic Acid Recognition

DNAzyme-based nanomachines (DNM) for the detection of DNA and RNA sequences (analytes) are multifunctional structures made of oligonucleotides. Their functions include tight analyte binding, highly selective analyte recognition, fluorescent signal amplification by multiple catalytic cleavages of a fluorogenic reporter substrate, and fluorogenic substrate attraction for an increase in sensor response. Functional units are attached to a common DNA scaffold for their cooperative action. The RNA-cleaving 10-23 DNMs feature&#160;improved sensitivity in comparison with non-catalytic hybridization probes. The stability of the DNM and the increased chances of substrate recognition are provided&#160;by a double-stranded DNA fragment,&#160;a tile. DNM can differentiate two analytes with a single nucleotide difference in a folded RNA and a double-stranded DNA and detect analytes at concentrations ~1000 times lower than other protein-free hybridization probes. This article presents the concept behind the diagnostic potential of DNA-nanomachine activity and overviews DNM design, assembly, and application&#160;in nucleic acid detection assays.

Author Spotlight: Advancements in DNA Nanosensors &amp;#8211; Addressing Sensitivity and Selectivity Challenges in Molecular Detection

The DNAzyme-based nanomachines can be used for highly selective and sensitive detection of nucleic acids. This article describes a detailed protocol for the design of DNAzyme-based nanomachines with a 10-23 core using free software and their application in the detection of an Epstein-Barr virus fragment as an example.

DNAzyme-based nanomachines (DNM) for the detection of DNA and RNA sequences (analytes) are multifunctional structures made of oligonucleotides. Their ...