The authors are grateful to Andr&#233;e Nienkerk, Dennis Peyron, and Sebastian Skj&#246;ld for supervising the training sessions and several tests; to the subjects participating; to Tim Crosfield for language revision; and to the economic support from The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences.

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

In this study, a number of techniques have been used to investigate the effects of short-term progressive resistance training on elderly subjects&#39; muscle function/morphology, aerobic capacity, and glucose tolerance. The main finding was that, compared to a control group, many improvements occurred in muscle aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, strength, power, and muscle quality (i.e., protein involved in cell signaling and muscle fiber composition). An increase was, for example, seen for: static, eccentric,...

Aging is associated with a loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia), strength, and power. Reduced strength, and probably even more importantly, power, results in immobility, an increased risk of injury, and a reduced quality of life. Resistance training is a well-known strategy to counteract sarcopenia and deteriorating muscle function. A rough estimate of muscle strength can be obtained from the load or number of achieved repetitions. However, this study obtained more detailed and accurate information on muscle function using an isokinetic dynamometer to gather information on the torque during isometric, concentric and eccentric contraction, as well as on the kinetics of force development.
Aerobic capacity, both at the whole-body level (VO2max) and in skeletal muscle, is reduced in elderly people. The decline in heart rate with age explains a large part of the decrease in VO2max1, but reduced muscle oxidative capacity, largely related to reduced physical activity2, does contribute. Impaired mitochondrial function may also be involved in the development of sarcopenia and insulin resistance3. The muscle aerobic capacity was assessed in muscle biopsies through biochemical analyses of the contents of mitochondrial enzymes and protein complexes located both in the matrix (i.e., citrate synthase) and the inner mitochondrial membrane. In addition, histochemical techniques were used to measure the effect of resistance training on muscle morphology (i.e., fiber type composition, fiber cross-sectional area, and capillary density). An alternative method to assess muscle aerobic capacity would be to use magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure the rate of creatine phosphate resynthesis after exercise-induced depletion4. This method provides an estimate of the in vivo muscle aerobic capacity but cannot discriminate between mitochondrial dysfunction and circulatory disorders. Furthermore, the high costs of equipment limit the use of this technique in most laboratories. Aerobic capacity (VO2max and mitochondrial density) can be improved by endurance exercise in both young and old people5,6. However, the effect of resistance training on these parameters has been less investigated, especially in elderly subjects, and the results are conflicting7,8,9,10.
Type 2 diabetes is a widespread disease in the elderly population. Physical inactivity and obesity are major lifestyle-related factors explaining the increased incidence of type 2 diabetes. Low-intensity aerobic exercise is often recommended to subjects with reduced glucose tolerance. However, it is unclear how strength training in the elderly affects glucose tolerance/insulin sensitivity11,12. The most accurate way to measure insulin sensitivity is to use the glucose clamp technique, where the blood glucose is maintained constant by glucose infusion during conditions of elevated insulin13. The disadvantages with this technique are that it is time consuming and invasive (arterial catheterization) and requires special laboratory facilities. In this study, the oral glucose tolerance test, which is common in healthcare units, was used. This method is suitable when several subjects are to be investigated for a limited period of time.
The testing and timeline of the experimental procedure can be summarized as follows. Use three separate days for testing before and after an eight-week period, with the same arrangement and approximate time schedules (&#8805;24 h between each day, Figure 1). On the first test day, measure: anthropometric data, such as height, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM), and upper leg circumference (i.e., 15 cm above the apex patellae in a relaxed supine position); submaximal cycling ability; and knee muscle strength, as described in steps 4 and 5. Take a muscle biopsy from the thigh on the second test day. For further descriptions, see step 6.1. Test oral glucose tolerance (OGTT) on the last testing day. For further descriptions, see step 7.1. Ask all participants to avoid vigorous physical activity for 24 h and to fast overnight prior to each test day. However, ask them to avoid strenuous physical activity for 48 h before the OGTT test day. Ask them to follow their normal everyday physical activity and diet habits. Note that pre- and post-intervention, both groups&#39; self-reported food intake and type of foods were unchanged.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55518/55518fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Experimental protocol. Schematic diagram. The timing between the three pre- and post-tests was similar for each subject and was at least 24 h. Further details are given in the text. This figure has been modified from Frank et al. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 2016: 26, 764-73.28 <a href="http://cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55518/55518fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
This study sought to investigate the effect of short-term resistance training in elderly people on muscle oxidative capacity and glucose tolerance. The second aim was to examine the effect on strength, power, and muscle qualitative improvements (i.e., proteins involved in cell signaling and muscle fiber type composition).

<table><tbody><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Western blot&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pierce 660 nm Protein Assay Kit</td><td>Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA</td><td>22662</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SuperSignal West Femto Maximum Sensitivity Substrate&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>34096</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Halt Protease Inhibitor Cocktail (100x)</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>78429</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Restore PLUS Western Blot Stripping Buffer</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>46430</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pierce Reversible Protein Stain Kit for PVDF Membranes</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>24585</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10 st - 4&amp;ndash;20% Criterion TGX Gel, 18 well, 30 &amp;micro;L</td><td>Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA, USA</td><td>567-1094</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Immun-Blot PVDF Membrane&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>162-0177</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Precision Plus Protein Dual Color Standards&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>161-0374</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2x Laemmli Sample Buffer</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>161-0737</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10x Tris/Glycine</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>161-0771</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2-Mercaptoethanol</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>161-0710</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tween 20</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td>P1379-250ML</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Band analysis with Quantity One version 4.6.3.software</td><td>Bio-Rad</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1% phosphatase inhibitor coctail</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Antibodies&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mTOR (1:1,000)</td><td>Cell Signaling, Danvers, Massachusetts, USA</td><td>2983</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Akt (1:1,000)</td><td>Cell Signaling, Danvers</td><td>9272</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Secondary anti-rabbit and anti-mouse HRP-linked (1:10,000)</td><td>Cell Signaling, Danvers</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Citrate synthase (CS) (1:1,000)</td><td>Gene tex, San Antonio, California, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OXPHOS (1:1,000)</td><td>Abcam, Cambridge, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Equipment - Analysis of muscle samples&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bullet Blender 1.5 for homogenizing</td><td>Next Advance, New York, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plate reader</td><td>Tecan infinite F200 pro, M&amp;auml;nnedorf, Switzerland</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Histochemistry&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mayer hematoxylin</td><td>HistoLab, V&amp;auml;stra Fr&amp;ouml;lunda, Sweden&amp;nbsp;</td><td>1820</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Oil Red o</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA</td><td>00625-25y</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaCl</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>793566-2.5 kg</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cobalt Chloride</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>60818-50G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Amylase</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A6255-25MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ATP</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A2383-5G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glycine</td><td>VWR-chemicals / VWR-international, Sp&amp;aring;nga, Sweden</td><td>101196X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Calcium Chloride</td><td>VWR-chemicals / VWR-international</td><td>22328.262</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Iso-pentane</td><td>VWR-chemicals / VWR-international</td><td>24872.298</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Etanol 96%</td><td>VWR-chemicals / VWR-international</td><td>20905.296</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaOH</td><td>MERCK, Stockholm, Sweden</td><td>1.06498.1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Na acetate</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.06268.1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>KCl</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.04936.1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ammonium Sulphide</td><td>MERCK</td><td>U1507042828</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acetic acid 100%</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.00063.2511</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Schiffs&amp;acute; Reagent</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.09033.0500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Periodic acid</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.00524.0025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chloroform</td><td>MERCK</td><td>1.02445.1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pH-meter LANGE</td><td>HACH LANGE GMBH, Dusseldorf, Germany</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Light microscope</td><td>Olympus BH-2, Olympus, Tokyo, Japan</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cryostat&amp;nbsp; Leica CM1950</td><td>Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Leica software Leica Qwin V3</td><td>Leica Microsystems</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gel Doc 2000 - Bio-Rad, camera setup</td><td>Bio-Rad Laboratories AB, Solna, Sweden&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Software program Quantift One - 4.6 (version 4.6.3; Bio Rad)</td><td>Bio-Rad Laboratories AB, Solna, Sweden&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Oral glucos tolerance test, OGTT&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glukos APL 75 g</td><td>APL, Stockholm, Sweden</td><td>323,188</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Automated analyser Biosen 5140</td><td>EKF Diagnostics, Barleben, Germany</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Insulin and C-peptide in plasma kit ELISA</td><td>Mercodia AB, Uppsala Sweden</td><td>10-1132-01, 10-1134-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plate reader</td><td>Tecan infinite F200 pro, M&amp;auml;nnedorf, Switzerland</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Further equipment&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Measures of fat-free mass</td><td>FFM-Tanita T5896, Tanita, Tokyo, Japan</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Strength training equipment for all training exercises</td><td>Cybex International Inc., Medway, Massachusetts, USA&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cycle ergometer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Monark Ergometer 893E, Monark Exercises, Varberg, Sweden&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heart rate monitor RS800, Polar</td><td>Polar Electro OY, Kampele, Finland</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Oxycin-Pro - automatic ergo-spirometric device</td><td>Erich Jaeger GmbH, Hoechberg, Germany</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Isokinetic dynamometer, Isomed 2000, knee muscle strength</td><td>D&amp;amp;R Ferstl GmbH, Henau, Germany</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CED 1401 data acquisition system and Signal software</td><td>Cambridge Electronic Design, Cambridge, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Software for muscle strength analysis, Spike 2, version 7</td><td>Signal Hound, LA Center, WA, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Statistica software for statistical analyses</td><td>Statistica, Stat soft. inc, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Muscle biopsy equipment&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Weil Blakesley conchotome</td><td>Wisex, M&amp;ouml;lndal, Sweden</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Local anesthesia&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Carbocain, 20 mL, 20 mg/mL; Astra Zeneca, S&amp;ouml;dert&amp;auml;lje, Sweden</td><td>169,367</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Blade</td><td>Feather Safety Razor CO, LTD, Osaka, Japan&amp;nbsp;</td><td>11048030</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

improving strength, power, muscle aerobic capacity, and glucose tolerance through short-term progressive strength training among elderly people

This protocol describes the simultaneous use of a broad span of methods to examine muscle aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, strength, and power in elderly people performing short-term resistance training (RET). Supervised progressive resistance training for 1 h three times a week over 8 weeks was performed by RET participants (71&#177;1 years, range 65-80). Compared to a control group without training, the RET showed improvements on the measures used to indicate strength, power, glucose tolerance, and several parameters of muscle aerobic capacity. Strength training was performed in a gym with only robust fitness equipment. An isokinetic dynamometer for knee extensor strength permitted the measurement of concentric, eccentric, and static strength, which increased for the RET group (8-12% post- versus pre-test). The power (rate of force development, RFD) at the initial 0-30 ms also showed an increase for the RET group (52%). A glucose tolerance test with frequent blood glucose measurements showed improvements only for the RET group in terms of blood glucose values after 2 h (14%) and the area under the curve (21%). The blood lipid profile also improved (8%). From muscle biopsy samples prepared using histochemistry, the amount of fiber type IIa increased, and a trend towards a decrease in IIx in the RET group reflected a change to a more oxidative profile in terms of fiber composition. Western blot (to determine the protein content related to the signaling for muscle protein synthesis) showed a rise of 69% in both Akt and mTOR in the RET group; this also showed an increase in mitochondrial proteins for OXPHOS complex II and citrate synthase (both ~30%) and for complex IV (90%), in only the RET group. We demonstrate that this type of progressive resistance training offers various improvements (e.g., strength, power, aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, and plasma lipid profile).

Material
In the study, 21 relatively healthy women and men, 65-80 years old and with BMI values between 20 and 30 kg&#183;m-2 participated and were randomized into two groups. Individuals in both groups had relatively low physical activity levels (i.e., a moderate everyday physical activity level and no regular exercise training). One group (n=12, 6 women and 6 men) performed RET under a trainer for 1 h three ti...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Improving Strength, Power, Muscle Aerobic Capacity, and Glucose Tolerance through Short-term Progressive Strength Training Among Elderly People at JoVE.com

Improving Strength, Power, Muscle Aerobic Capacity, and Glucose Tolerance through Short-term Progressive Strength Training Among Elderly People

The effect of short-term resistance training on elderly people was investigated through the simultaneous use of several methods. Compared to a control group, many improvements were seen, including on muscle aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, strength, power, and muscle quality (i.e., protein involved in cell signaling and muscle fiber type composition).

This protocol describes the simultaneous use of a broad span of methods to examine muscle aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, strength, and power in ...

improving-strength-power-muscle-aerobic-capacity-glucose-tolerance

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Unit 1

Muscle Tissue

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

12.5K Views.  The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH. The effect of short-term resistance training on elderly people was investigated through the simultaneous use of several methods. Compared to a control group, many improvements were seen, including on muscle aerobic capacity, glucose tolerance, strength, power, and muscle quality (i.e., protein involved in cell signaling and muscle fiber type composition).

Video: Improving Strength, Power, Muscle Aerobic Capacity, and Glucose Tolerance through Short-term Progressive Strength Training Among Elderly People

Measuring the Strength of Mice

Kondziela7 devised the inverted screen test and published it in 1964. It is a test of muscle strength using all four limbs. Most normal mice easily score maximum on this task; it is a quick but insensitive gross screen, and the weights test described in this article will provide a finer measure of muscular strength.
There are also several strain gauge-based pieces of apparatus available commercially that will provide more graded data than the inverted screen test, but their cost may put them beyond the reach of many laboratories which do not specialize in strength testing. Hence in 2000 a cheap and simple apparatus was devised by the author. It consists of a series of chain links of increasing length, attached to a "fur collector" a ball of fine wire mesh sold for preventing limescale build up in hard water areas. An accidental observation revealed that mice could grip these very tightly, so they proved ideal as a grip point for a weight-lifting apparatus. A common fault with commercial strength meters is that the bar or other grip feature is not thin enough for mice to exert a maximum grip. As a general rule, the thinner the wire or bar, the better a mouse can grip with its small claws.
This is a pure test of strength, although as for any test motivational factors could potentially play a role. The use of scale collectors, however, seems to minimize motivational problems as the motivation appears to be very high for most normal young adult mice.

Deficits in muscular strength occur in many clinical conditions such as motor neuron disease. The inverted screen and weight lifting tests described here measure strength in mice almost exclusively, with minimal influence of factors such as coordination.

Kondziela7 devised the inverted screen test and published it in 1964. It is a test of muscle strength using all four limbs. Most normal mice easily score ...

Manual Muscle Testing:  A Method of Measuring Extremity Muscle Strength Applied to Critically Ill Patients 

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other causes of critical illness often have generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance, and persistent nerve and muscle impairments after hospital discharge.1-6 Using an explicit protocol with a structured approach to training and quality assurance of research staff, manual muscle testing (MMT) is a highly reliable method for assessing strength, using a standardized clinical examination, for patients following ARDS, and can be completed with mechanically ventilated patients who can tolerate sitting upright in bed and are able to follow two-step commands. 7, 8 
This video demonstrates a protocol for MMT, which has been taught to &ge;43 research staff who have performed &gt;800 assessments on &gt;280 ARDS survivors. Modifications for the bedridden patient are included. Each muscle is tested with specific techniques for positioning, stabilization, resistance, and palpation for each score of the 6-point ordinal Medical Research Council scale.7,9-11 Three upper and three lower extremity muscles are graded in this protocol: shoulder abduction, elbow flexion, wrist extension, hip flexion, knee extension, and ankle dorsiflexion. These muscles were chosen based on the standard approach for evaluating patients for ICU-acquired weakness used in prior publications. 1,2.

Manual Muscle Testing:  A Method of Measuring Extremity Muscle Strength Applied to Critically Ill Patients

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and critical illness frequently develop long-lasting muscle weakness. Manual muscle testing (MMT) is a standardized clinical examination commonly used to measure strength of peripheral skeletal muscle groups. This video demonstrates MMT using the 6-point Medical Research Council scale.

Survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and other causes of critical illness often have generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance, ...

A Murine Model of Muscle Training by Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is a common clinical modality that is widely used to restore1, maintain2 or enhance3-5 muscle functional capacity. Transcutaneous surface stimulation of skeletal muscle involves a current flow between a cathode and an anode, thereby inducing excitement of the motor unit and the surrounding muscle fibers. 
NMES is an attractive modality to evaluate skeletal muscle adaptive responses for several reasons. First, it provides a reproducible experimental model in which physiological adaptations, such as myofiber hypertophy and muscle strengthening6, angiogenesis7-9, growth factor secretion9-11, and muscle precursor cell activation12 are well documented. Such physiological responses may be carefully titrated using different parameters of stimulation (for Cochrane review, see 13). In addition, NMES recruits motor units non-selectively, and in a spatially fixed and temporally synchronous manner14, offering the advantage of exerting a treatment effect on all fibers, regardless of fiber type. Although there are specified contraindications to NMES in clinical populations, including peripheral venous disorders or malignancy, for example, NMES is safe and feasible, even for those who are ill and/or bedridden and for populations in which rigorous exercise may be challenging. 
Here, we demonstrate the protocol for adapting commercially available electrodes and performing a NMES protocol using a murine model. This animal model has the advantage of utilizing a clinically available device and providing instant feedback regarding positioning of the electrode to elicit the desired muscle contractile effect. For the purpose of this manuscript, we will describe the protocol for muscle stimulation of the anterior compartment muscles of a mouse hindlimb.

A murine model of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), a safe and inexpensive clinical modality, to the anterior compartment muscles is described. This model has the advantage of modifying a readily available clinical device for the purpose of eliciting targeted and specific muscle contractions in mice.

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is a common clinical modality that is widely used to restore1, maintain2 or enhance3-5 muscle functional ...

Short Session High Intensity Interval Training and Treadmill Assessment in Aged Mice

High intensity interval training (HIIT) is emerging as a therapeutic approach to prevent, delay, or ameliorate frailty. In particular short session HIIT, with regimens less than or equal to 10 min is of particular interest as several human studies feature routines as short as a few minutes a couple times a week. However, there is a paucity of animal studies that model the impacts of short session HIIT. Here, we describe a methodology for an individually tailored and progressive short session HIIT regimen of 10 min given 3 days a week for aged mice using an inclined treadmill. Our methodology also includes protocols for treadmill assessment. Mice are initially acclimatized to the treadmill and then given baseline flat and uphill treadmill assessments. Exercise sessions begin with a 3 min warm-up, then three intervals of 1 min at a fast pace, followed by 1 min at an active recovery pace. Following these intervals, the mice are given a final segment that starts at the fast pace and accelerates for 1 min. The HIIT protocol is individually tailored as the speed and intensity for each mouse are determined based upon initial anaerobic assessment scores. Additionally, we detail the conditions for increasing or decreasing the intensity for individual mice depending on performance. Finally, intensity is increased for all mice every two weeks. We previously reported in this protocol enhanced physical performance in aged male mice and here show it also increases treadmill performance in aged female mice. Advantages of our protocol include low administration time (about 15 min per 6 mice, 3 days a week), strategy for individualizing for mice to better model prescribed exercise, and a modular design that allows for the addition or removal of the number and length of intervals to titrate exercise benefits.

Short session (&#8804;10 min) high intensity interval training (HIIT) is emerging as an alternative to longer exercise modalities, yet the shorter variants are rarely modeled in animal studies. Here, we describe a 10 min, 3 day a week, uphill treadmill HIIT protocol that enhances physical performance in male and female aged mice.

High intensity interval training (HIIT) is emerging as a therapeutic approach to prevent, delay, or ameliorate frailty. In particular short session HIIT, ...

Behavior

Characterization of Metabolic Status in Nonhuman Primates with the Intravenous Glucose Tolerance Test

The intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) plays a key role in the characterization of glucose homeostasis. When taken together with serum biochemical profiles, inclusive of blood glucose levels in both the fed and fasted state, HbA1c, insulin levels, clinical history of diet, body composition, and body weight status, an assessment of normal and abnormal glycemic control can be made. Interpretation of an IVGTT is done through measurement of changes in glucose and insulin levels over time in relation to the dextrose challenge. Critical components to be considered are: peak glucose and insulin levels reached in relation to T0 (end of glucose infusion), the glucose clearance rate K derived from the slope of rapid glucose clearance in the first 20 min (T1 to T20), the time to return to glucose baseline, and the area under the curve (AUC). These IVGTT measures will show characteristic changes as glucose homeostasis moves from a healthy to a diseased metabolic state5. Herein we will describe the characterization of nonhuman primates (Rhesus and Cynomolgus macaques), which are the most relevant animal model of Type II diabetes (T2D) in humans and the IVGTT and clinical profiles of these animals from a lean healthy, to obese dysmetabolic, and T2D state 8, 10, 11.

The goal of this protocol is to present a standard method to perform intravenous glucose tolerance tests (IVGTTs) to assess glycemic control in nonhuman primates and assess their metabolic status from healthy to dysmetabolic.

The intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) plays a key role in the characterization of glucose homeostasis. When taken together with serum biochemical ...

Adapted Resistance Training Improves Strength in Eight Weeks in Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). It is known that resistance strength training (RST) can improve strength in individuals with MS, however; it remains unclear the duration of RST that is needed to make strength gains and how to adapt hip strengthening exercises for individuals of varying strength using only resistance bands. This paper describes the methodology to set up and implement an adapted resistance strength training program, using resistance bands, for individuals with MS. Directions for pre- and post-strength tests to evaluate efficacy of the strength-training program are included. Safety features and detailed instructions outline the weekly program content and progression. Current evidence is presented showing that significant strength gains can be made within 8 weeks of starting a RST program. Evidence is also presented showing that resistance strength training can be successfully adapted for individuals with MS of varying strength with little equipment.

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis. Isolated muscle strengthening is a useful method to target specific weaknesses. This protocol describes a progressive resistance-training program using exercise bands to increase hip muscle strength.

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). It is known that resistance strength training (RST) can ...

A Training Program Using an Agility Ladder for Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Aging impairs physical and cognitive functions and limits daily activities. Agility training can improve or maintain physical functioning in older people. The purpose of this study is to report the physical fitness benefits of a training program for independent community-dwelling older adults using an agility ladder. Each training session lasted approximately 30 minutes, and the benefits were achieved with two sessions per week for 14 weeks. Training was timed and involved four different drills and varying levels of difficulty through time. The exercises were performed at the School of Physical Education of the University of Campinas, S&#227;o Paulo state, Brazil. The study participants (n = 16; mean age of 66.9 &#177; 5.0 years) were instructed to perform the exercises as quickly as possible without making mistakes and were assisted by a physical trainer when they made mistakes. Assessments were performed both before and after training using five functional tests (i.e., Illinois agility, five times sit-to-stand, timed up-and-go, walking usual speed, and one-leg stand). Although the study sample was not compared with a control group, the results indicate that training protocols using an agility ladder are easy and practical and improve physical function performance in older adults.

The aim of this study is to present an agility training program for older people. The feasibility of this program is described, and the training protocol demonstrated by video imaging.

Aging impairs physical and cognitive functions and limits daily activities. Agility training can improve or maintain physical functioning in older people. ...

Accumulated High-intensity Interval Training Protocol: A New Approach to Study Health Markers in Wistar Rats

High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and accumulated exercises are two time-efficient programs to improve health in humans and animal models. However, to date, there are no studies on whether HIIT performed in an accumulated fashion is as effective as a traditional HIIT performed with single daily sessions in improving health markers. This paper presents the effects of a new HIIT protocol, called accumulated HIIT, on body weight gain, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), and cardiac hypertrophy in young Wistar rats. 
Sixty-day-old male Wistar rats were assigned to three groups: untrained (UN; n = 16), HIIT performed with single daily sessions (1-HIIT; n = 16), and HIIT performed with three daily sessions (3-HIIT; n = 16). Body weight and VO2max were recorded before and after the training period. The VO2max measurements were taken using a metabolic analyzer at the maximal running velocity (Vmax). The training was performed for both HIIT groups five days per week over eight weeks with the same weekly progression of the exercise intensity (85-100% Vmax). The 1-HIIT group performed single daily sessions (6 bouts of 1 min interspersed with 1 min of passive recovery). The 3-HIIT group performed three daily sessions (2 bouts of 1 min interspersed with 1 min of passive recovery with an interval of 4 h between bouts). After the last VO2max test, the rats were euthanized, and their hearts were harvested and weighed.
The results showed that 3-HIIT had similar beneficial effects to 1-HIIT in preventing body weight gain, improving VO2max, and inducing cardiac hypertrophy. These findings reveal for the first time the efficacy of an accumulated HIIT protocol on the health markers of young Wistar rats. This new HIIT protocol may be more feasible than traditional HIIT protocols as exercise can be split into very short sessions throughout a day in this new approach.

Here, we present accumulated high-intensity interval training (HIIT) protocols, which may be a more feasible and time-efficient strategy than traditional HIIT protocols.

High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and accumulated exercises are two time-efficient programs to improve health in humans and animal models. However, ...

Assessing Strength Exercise Volume and Its Impact on Insulin Sensitivity in Obesity

Randomized Controlled Trial to Study the Acute Effects of Strength Exercise on Insulin Sensitivity in Obese Adults

An acute session of strength exercise (SE) ameliorates insulin sensitivity (IS) for several hours; however, the effects of SE volume (i.e., number of sets) have not been studied thoroughly. Although it is intuitive that some SE is better than none, and more is better than some for the improvement of IS, high-volume sessions might be challenging for diseased populations to complete, especially obese adults, for whom even a brisk walk can be challenging. This protocol details a randomized clinical trial to assess the acute effects of SE on IS in obese adults. The inclusion criteria are body mass index &#62;30 kg/m2, central obesity (waist circumference &#62;88 cm and &#62;102 cm for women and men, respectively), and age &#62;40 years. Participants will be familiarized with the SE (7 exercises targeting major muscle groups) and then will perform three sessions in a randomized order: session 1 - high-volume session (3 sets/exercise); session 2 - low-volume session (1 set/exercise); session 3 - control session (no exercise). Diet will be controlled the day before and on the day of the sessions. Sessions will be completed at night, and an oral glucose tolerance test will be performed the next morning, from which several indexes of IS will be derived, such as the area under the curve (AUC) of glucose and insulin, the Matsuda index, the Cederholm index, the muscle IS index, and the Gutt index. Based on pilot studies, we expect ~15% improvement in IS (insulin AUC, and Matsuda and Cederholm indexes) after the high-volume session, and ~8% improvement after the low-volume session compared to the control session. This study will benefit individuals who find high-volume SE sessions challenging but still aim to improve their IS by investing 1/3 of their time and effort.

Author Spotlight: Exploring the Impact of Reduced Resistance Exercise Volume on Metabolic Health 

This study describes a randomized controlled trial protocol aiming at assessing the acute effects of strength exercise volume on insulin sensitivity in obese individuals.

An acute session of strength exercise (SE) ameliorates insulin sensitivity (IS) for several hours; however, the effects of SE volume (i.e., number of ...

Exploring T2DM Exercise Interventions: A Static Training Device for Mice

Static Strength Training Method for Type 2 Diabetic Mice

The treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major difficulty in improving patient health. Exercise is one of the main interventions for T2DM. Static strength training is one of the key forms of traditional sports in China. Research shows that static strength training is an effective clinical method for T2DM intervention, but there is no experimental device suitable for static training in mice. One of the difficulties in moving from clinical to basic research is to design appropriate experimental devices. In order to further study the mechanism of static training intervention in T2DM, a simple method for making a static training device for mice is introduced in this paper. This device has the advantages of simple operation, cheap material, and high feasibility. Previous studies conducted under this protocol have shown that static training can effectively reduce blood glucose levels and improve the mitochondrial function of skeletal muscle cells in T2DM mice. The purpose of introducing this device is to promote research on the mechanism of traditional exercise in the intervention of T2DM and to lay a foundation for the quantitative intervention of exercise.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Diabetes Research with Static Exercise Training in Mice

This protocol provides a simple method of making static training equipment for mice. The device maintains the muscle isometric contraction of the limbs of mice so as to verify the intervention effect of traditional exercise on type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and provides new exercise therapy for the clinical treatment of T2DM.

The treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major difficulty in improving patient health. Exercise is one of the main interventions for T2DM. ...