Work cited and previously published by the author was supported by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (MH088480). The author would like to thank her former mentor, Dr. James O'Donnell for his support in that project. This publication is supported by a grant from the National Institute of Health (T32 DA007135).

All procedures performed here were submitted to and approved by the Animal Care and Use committee and were conducted following NIH guidelines.
1. Object Selection and Experimental Setup
<ol>
	<li>Select objects that are different enough to be easily discriminated by mice, but have a similar degree of complexity (texture, shape, color patterning and brightness, etc.) in order to minimize any potential induced object preference that may bias the results (see Ennaceur 2010 for a comprehensive description of object choice7).
	<ol>
		<li>Test for innate preference and discrimination (see Steps 2 &#38; 3).</li>
		<li>Use objects that are mouse-sized or only slightly larger to encourage exploration (Figure 1). To reduce induced preference, ensure that mice are able to climb on both objects or neither object, though ability to climb on an object may increase interest in exploration (time spent just sitting on an object is not counted towards exploration time.)</li>
		<li>Have at least 2 copies of each object. However, to minimize potential odor cues during testing, have at least 3 of each object, duplicates for training and one for testing.</li>
		<li>Use objects made of non-breakable material, as loss of an object due to damage during experimentation could interfere with the continuity of testing, and potentially cause harm or injury to the animal.</li>
		<li>Thoroughly clean the objects before and between use (70% vol/vol ethanol is appropriate).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To minimize the stress of bright lighting, use diffuse, low lighting, with the center of the maze illuminated around 20 lux. Use a temperature and humidity similar to regular housing conditions. If mice are being moved from a housing room to a different room for the experiment, acclimate mice to their new room for at least 1 h prior to use each day.</li>
	<li>Handle mice well prior to training. Because the test relies on the natural tendency of rodents to explore novelty, reduce any stress or anxiety from handling that may interfere with their desire to explore the arena, and subsequently, the objects. Ideally, handle mice 1 - 2 times/day for at least 1 min, 1 to 2 weeks prior to testing15,29.</li>
	<li>For the main arena, use a square chamber (around 40 cm x 40 cm x 40 cm) made from white or black, non-porous plastic, contrasted to the color of the mouse. Alternatively, use a round arena ed. Specifically, when using anxious mice that may sit in the corners of a square arena, a round arena may be preferable to encourage exploratory behavior18,30.
	<ol>
		<li>On training day, place 2 identical objects on the diagonal (i.e. one in the NW corner and one in the SE corner). If objects are too light and can be moved by the mouse, fasten them to the floor. Removable mounting putty works well.</li>
		<li>For testing day, use the 3rd copy of each object to place one familiar object and one novel object on the same diagonal as the training day (Figure 2).</li>
		<li>Counterbalance the use of each set of objects so that each object is used equally as a familiar object and as a novel object. Also, counterbalance the location of the novel object to each of the 4 corners of the arena. Be sure to note which diagonal is used for which animal so that the diagonal used on the training day is the same as that used on the testing day, for each mouse.</li>
		<li>Thoroughly clean the apparatus and objects to remove odor cues before and between use (70% vol/vol ethanol is appropriate).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the camera directly overhead of the apparatus for optimal view of exploration. Only use software with nose-point detection for accurate analysis. If using software, capture a background image with the objects in place prior to starting. In the software, set the area of exploration to be approximately 2 - 3 cm around the object.</li>
	<li>To reduce experimenter interference, record the trial and score it later. Blind the scorer to the experimental conditions. If manually scoring during the experiment, ensure that the experimenter is more than 1 meter from the arena, and not visible to the mouse. 
	NOTE: Any time the mouse spends sitting on the object without active vibrissae sweeping or sniffing does not count as exploration time.</li>
	<li>Define exploration as when the mouse&#39;s noise is pointed towards the object and within 2 - 3 cm of the object, with active vibrissae sweeping or sniffing. Do not count any time sitting on the object without indication of active exploration.</li>
</ol>
2. Necessary Pilot Experiments
<ol>
	<li>Testing for induced preference
	<ol>
		<li>For habituation, remove the mouse from its home cage and place it in the middle of the open arena. Allow the mouse to freely explore for 5 min.</li>
		<li>On Training Day (T1), place 2 different objects in opposite quadrants of the apparatus, (i.e., NW and SE corners). Remove the mouse from its home cage and place it in the middle of the open arena. Allow free exploration for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Calculate the discrimination index. If there is no induced preference, the discrimination index should be at or near zero. Any objects that show preference should not be used for ORT.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Testing for discrimination ability
	<ol>
		<li>For habituation, remove mouse from its home cage and place it in the middle of the open arena. Allow the mouse to freely explore for 5 min.</li>
		<li>On Training Session (T1), place 2 identical objects in opposite quadrants. Place the mouse in the center of the arena and allow the mouse to explore for 10 min.</li>
		<li>On Testing Session (T2), place one of the object used during T1 and one novel object in opposite quadrants (i.e., NW and SE corners). Sixty min after T1, place the mouse in the center of the arena and allow free exploration for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Calculate the discrimination index. At a 60 min retention interval, the discrimination index should be above 0.25.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental Procedure
<ol>
	<li>Habituation
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the mouse from its home cage and place it in the middle of the open, empty arena. Allow for free exploration of the arena for 5 min. Once the home cage is empty, save it for use as a holding cage the next day.</li>
		<li>At the end of 5 min, remove the mouse and place in a holding cage. Do not return the mouse to its original cage, or this may affect the behavior of the remaining mice to be tested.</li>
		<li>Thoroughly clean the apparatus between mice using 70% vol/vol ethanol. 
		NOTE: During habituation, anxiety-like behavior can be assessed by calculating time spent in the center (see Prut &#38; Belzung 200331). This is a useful metric when considering the length of time for T1. Higher anxiety mice may require a 10 min session to reach the minimum exploration criterion.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Training (T1)
	<ol>
		<li>Place two identical objects in opposite quadrants of the arena (i.e., NE corner and SW corner).</li>
		<li>24 h after habituation, remove the mouse from its home cage and place it in the center of the arena, equidistant from the 2 identical objects.</li>
		<li>Allow free exploration for a minimum of 5 min. If using a strain of mice that are known to have low locomotor or exploration activity, (i.e., most mice do not reach a minimum of 20 s exploration of both objects by 5 min, as noted in the pilot experiments or the literature), extend the trial to 10 min for all mice in the cohort.</li>
		<li>At the end of the trial, remove the mouse and place in the holding cage. Once the home cage is empty, save it for use as the holding cage on testing day.</li>
		<li>Thoroughly clean the apparatus and objects between mice using 70% vol/vol ethanol.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Testing (T2)
	<ol>
		<li>Place one object used during T1 (i.e., the familiar object) and one novel object in opposite quadrants of the arena. Use the same locations as used during T1 for each mouse.</li>
		<li>At the T1 to T2 interval of choosing, remove mouse from its home cage and place it in the center arena, equidistant from the familiar object and the novel object. 
		NOTE: At a retention interval of 24 h, most mice will not be able to discriminate between the familiar and novel object (usually -0.2 &#60; d2 &#60; 0.2, as compared to a positive control32). If testing for nootropic effects, use this time point to probe for memory enhancement. To probe for memory deficits, use a shorter retention interval of anywhere between 20 min to 4 h, depending on the strain of mouse.</li>
		<li>Allow free exploration for 10 min. At the end of the trial, remove the mouse and place in the holding cage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For both T1 and T2, score the first 5 min. If the mouse does not meet the minimum exploration time of 20 s for both objects, continue scoring past 5 min until total exploration exceeds 20 s.</li>
</ol>
4. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Exclusion Criteria
	<ol>
		<li>During both training (T1) and testing (T2), calculate the total exploration time for both objects for each session (e1 and e2). Most mice should reach a minimum exploration total for both objects of 20 s by 5 min.</li>
		<li>Extend T1 and T2 time to 10 min for strains of mice that have low exploration and do not meet this minimum criterion by 5 min, as observed during pilot testing.</li>
		<li>Score behavior for 5 min or beyond 5 min until they reach the 20 s minimum criterion.</li>
		<li>If mice do not reach a 20 s minimum of exploration for both objects for either T1 or T2 at 10 min, exclude from analysis, as it cannot be confirmed they spent enough time exploring to learn/discriminate.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Absolute vs Relative Analysis 
	NOTE: Different formulas for analysis and their relationship to one another can be seen in Table 1.
	<ol>
		<li>Calculate e1 as the total exploration time during training for 2 identical objects, where a1 and a2 are the identical objects. 
		e1 = a1 + a2</li>
		<li>Calculate e2 as the total exploration time during testing for the familiar object (a) and the novel object (b). 
		e2 = a+b</li>
		<li>Calculate d1 as simply the time spent exploring the novel object minus time spent exploring the familiar object. The absolute discrimination measure (d1) does not take into account differences in exploration time between mice or treatment groups, though in certain circumstances, it may be a more sensitive measure2. 
		d1 = b-a</li>
		<li>Calculate d2 as the time spent exploring the novel object minus the time spent exploring the familiar object divided by total exploration time. The most commonly used measure is a relative discrimination value often referred to as the discrimination index (d2), which is not influenced by differences in exploration time. This means all values will fall between -1 and +1. 
		d2 = d1/e2</li>
		<li>Alternatively, calculate the recognition or preference index (d3)3. This is the time spent exploring the novel object divided by the total time. This means all values will fall between 0 and 1. It is often multiplied by 100 and used as percentage value. 
		d3 = b/e2*100</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Statistical Analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Using the mean discrimination values for each group, determine memory performance using one-way ANOVA. For further analysis, make two-way post hoc comparisons with the treated vs vehicle condition and positive/negative control groups.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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J., Bermudez-Rattoni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retrieval+and+reconsolidation+of+object+recognition+memory+are+independent+processes+in+the+perirhinal+cortex.">Retrieval and reconsolidation of object recognition memory are independent processes in the perirhinal cortex.</a> Neuroscience. 253, 398-405 (2013).</li><li>de curtis, M., Pare, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rhinal+cortices:+a+wall+of+inhibition+between+the+neocortex+and+the+hippocampus.">The rhinal cortices: a wall of inhibition between the neocortex and the hippocampus.</a> Prog. Neurobiol. 74 (2), 101-110 (2004).</li><li>Brown, M. W., Barker, G. R. I., Aggleton, J. P., Warburton, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What+pharmacological+interventions+indicate+concerning+the+role+of+the+perirhinal+cortex+in+recognition+memory.">What pharmacological interventions indicate concerning the role of the perirhinal cortex in recognition memory.</a> Neuropsychologia. 50 (13), 3122-3140 (2012).</li><li>Moore, S. J., Deshpande, K., Stinnett, G. S., Seasholtz, A. F., Murphy, G. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conversion+of+short-term+to+long-term+memory+in+the+novel+object+recognition+paradigm.">Conversion of short-term to long-term memory in the novel object recognition paradigm.</a> Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 105, 174-185 (2013).</li><li>Suzuki, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anatomy,+physiology+and+functions+of+the+perirhinal+cortex.">The anatomy, physiology and functions of the perirhinal cortex.</a> Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 179-186 (1996).</li><li>Wan, H., Aggleton, J. P., Brown, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+contributions+of+the+hippocampus+and+perirhinal+cortex+to+recognition+memory.">Different contributions of the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex to recognition memory.</a> J. Neurosci. 19 (3), 1142-1148 (1999).</li><li>Warburton, E. C., Brown, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Findings+from+animals+concerning+when+interactions+between+perirhinal+cortex,+hippocampus+and+medial+prefrontal+cortex+are+necessary+for+recognition+memory.">Findings from animals concerning when interactions between perirhinal cortex, hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex are necessary for recognition memory.</a> Neuropsychologia. 48 (8), 2262-2272 (2010).</li></ol>

The author has nothing to disclose.

The ORT is an efficient and flexible method for studying learning and memory in mice. When setting up an experiment, it is important to consider a number of variables that may affect the outcome. As discussed in the representative results, the strain of mouse will affect both exploration time and retention interval. A decrease in exploration time may skew or mask results in an absolute discrimination analysis2,3,5,<su...

The object recognition test (ORT), also known as the novel object recognition test (NOR), is a relatively fast and efficient means for testing different phases of learning and memory in mice. It was originally described by Ennaceur and Delacour in 1988 and used primarily in rats1; however, since then, it has been successfully adapted for use in mice2,3,4,5,6,7. The test relies on as few as three sessions: one habituation session, one training session, and one test session. Training simply involves visual exploration of two identical objects, while the test session involves replacing one of the previously explored objects with a novel object. Because rodents have an innate preference for novelty, a rodent that remembers the familiar object will spend more time exploring the novel object7,8,9.
The main advantage of the ORT over other rodent memory tests is that it relies on rodents&#39; natural proclivity for exploring novelty8. Therefore, there is no need for numerous training sessions or any positive or negative reinforcement to motivate behavior. This means that the ORT is much less stressful, relative to other tests10,11,12,13,14,15, and requires significantly less time to run than other commonly used memory tests, such as the Morris water maze or Barnes maze, which both can take up to a week or longer. Consequently, the conditions of the ORT more closely resemble those used in studying human cognition, increasing the ecological validity of the test over many other rodent memory tests. Similarly, because ORT is a simple visual recall task, it has been successfully adapted for use in numerous species, including humans and non-human primates, to assess different inter-species aspects of declarative memory 2,16,17. Finally, the ORT can be easily modified to examine different phases of learning and memory (i.e., acquisition, consolidation, or recall), to assess different types of memory (e.g., spatial memory), or to assess different retention intervals (i.e., short-term vs long-term memory).
The versatility of the ORT provides a platform for innumerable research applications. Studies can make use of pharmacologic agents to either disrupt or enhance memory. Varying the time of drug administration before or after training, or prior to testing can hint at the underlying neural mechanisms that lead to disrupted or enhanced memory6,18,19,20. In a similar way, optogenetic technology can be used at these same various time points to look at the neural activation/inhibition that contributes to the different phases of learning and memory. The ORT is also appropriate for assessing differences in transgenic animals, in lesion studies, or in neurodegenerative models or in aging studies21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28. The time between training and testing, known as the retention interval, can be altered to assess any of these changes on short- and long- term memory26. Ultimately, the ORT can be used as a tool to study pharmacological, genetic, and neurological changes to learning and memory, or these tools can be used to study the basis of learning and memory in the ORT.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Open Field Box</td><td>Panlab/Harvard Apparatus</td><td>LE800SC</td><td>Available in grey, white, or black</td></tr><tr><td>ANY-maze</td><td>Stoelting Co.</td><td>60000</td><td>Behavior tracking system</td></tr><tr><td>EthoVisionXT 12</td><td>Noldus</td><td></td><td>Behavior tracking system; requires 3 point tracking</td></tr><tr><td>Video Camera</td><td>Any</td><td></td><td>Video camera should be mounted directly overhead of the apparatus</td></tr><tr><td>70% Ethanol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP2818-4</td><td>Prior to starting testing and in between trials, each object should be carefully cleaned. The floor and walls of the apparatus should also be cleaned.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

novel object recognition test for the investigation of learning and memory in mice

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is fairly simple and can be completed over 3 days: habituation day, training day, and testing day. During training, the mouse is allowed to explore 2 identical objects. On test day, one of the training objects is replaced with a novel object. Because mice have an innate preference for novelty, if the mouse recognizes the familiar object, it will spend most of its time at the novel object. Due to this innate preference, there is no need for positive or negative reinforcement or long training schedules. Additionally, the ORT can also be modified for numerous applications. The retention interval can be shortened to examine short-term memory, or lengthened to probe long-term memory. Pharmacological intervention can be used at various times prior to training, after training, or prior to recall to investigate different phases of learning (i.e., acquisition, early or late consolidation, or recall). Overall, the ORT is a relatively low-stress, efficient test for memory in mice, and is appropriate for the detection of neuropsychological changes following pharmacological, biological, or genetic manipulations.

A general experimental setup for the ORT is shown in Figure 2. On habituation day (T0) mice are placed in the empty arena for 5 min. Twenty-four hours later, mice are placed back in the chamber with 2 identical objects and allowed to freely explore for up to 10 min (T1). On testing day (T2), the mice are again placed in the arena, but with one familiar object and one novel object, and allowed to explore for up to 10 min. The retention interval, the time betwe...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice at JoVE.com

Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice

The object recognition test (ORT) is a simple and efficient assay for evaluating learning and memory in mice. The methodology is described below.

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is ...

novel-object-recognition-test-for-investigation-learning-memory

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

72.0K Views.  Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. The object recognition test (ORT) is a simple and efficient assay for evaluating learning and memory in mice. The methodology is described below.

Video: Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice

Study Motor Skill Learning by Single-pellet Reaching Tasks in Mice

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and retrieve food rewards positioned at a specific location, their motor performance (defined as accuracy and speed) improves progressively over time, and plateaus after persistent training. Once such reaching skill is mastered, its further maintenance does not require constant practice. Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task to study the acquisition and maintenance of skilled forelimb movements in mice. In this video, we first describe the behaviors of mice that are commonly encountered in this learning and memory paradigm, and then discuss how to categorize these behaviors and quantify the observed results. Combined with mouse genetics, this paradigm can be utilized as a behavioral platform to explore the anatomical underpinnings, physiological properties, and molecular mechanisms of learning and memory.

Persistent practice improves the precision of coordinated movements.&#160;Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task, which is designed to assess the learning and memory of forelimb skill in mice.&#160;

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and ...

Novel Object Exploration as a Potential Assay for Higher Order Repetitive Behaviors in Mice

Restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and disrupt the lives of affected individuals. RRBs are commonly split into lower-order and higher-order components, with lower order RRBs consisting of motor stereotypies and higher order RRBs consisting of perseverative and sequencing behaviors. Higher order RRBs are challenging to model in mice. Current assays for RRBs in mice focus primarily on the lower order components, making basic biomedical research into potential treatments or interventions for higher-order RRBs difficult. Here we describe a new assay, novel object exploration. This assay uses a basic open-field arena with four novel objects placed around the perimeter. The test mouse is allowed to freely explore the arena and the order in which the mouse investigates the novel objects is recorded. From these data, patterned sequences of exploration can be identified, as can the most preferred object for each mouse. The representative data shared here and past results using the novel object exploration assay illustrate that inbred mouse strains do demonstrate different behavior in this assay and that strains with elevated lower order RRBs also show elevated patterned behavior. As such, the novel object exploration assay appears to possess good face validity for higher order RRBs in humans and may be a valuable assay for future studies investigating novel therapeutics for ASD.

Higher order restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) disrupt the lives of affected individuals. These behaviors are challenging to model in rodents, making basic biomedical research into potential treatments or interventions for RRBs difficult. Here we describe novel object exploration as a potential assay for higher order RRBs in mice.

Restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and disrupt the lives of affected individuals.  RRBs are ...

T-maze Forced Alternation and Left-right Discrimination Tasks for Assessing Working and Reference Memory in Mice

Forced alternation and left-right discrimination tasks using the T-maze have been widely used to assess working and reference memory, respectively, in rodents. In our laboratory, we evaluated the two types of memory in more than 30 strains of genetically engineered mice using the automated version of this apparatus. Here, we present the modified T-maze apparatus operated by a computer with a video-tracking system and our protocols in a movie format. The T-maze apparatus consists of runways partitioned off by sliding doors that can automatically open downward, each with a start box, a T-shaped alley, two boxes with automatic pellet dispensers at one side of the box, and two L-shaped alleys. Each L-shaped alley is connected to the start box so that mice can return to the start box, which excludes the effects of experimenter handling on mouse behavior. This apparatus also has an advantage that in vivo microdialysis, in vivo electrophysiology, and optogenetics techniques can be performed during T-maze performance because the doors are designed to go down into the floor. In this movie article, we describe T-maze tasks using the automated apparatus and the T-maze performance of &alpha;-CaMKII+/- mice, which are reported to show working memory deficits in the eight-arm radial maze task. Our data indicated that &alpha;-CaMKII+/- mice showed a working memory deficit, but no impairment of reference memory, and are consistent with previous findings using the eight-arm radial maze task, which supports the validity of our protocol. In addition, our data indicate that mutants tended to exhibit reversal learning deficits, suggesting that &alpha;-CaMKII deficiency causes reduced behavioral flexibility. Thus, the T-maze test using the modified automatic apparatus is useful for assessing working and reference memory and behavioral flexibility in mice.

This article presents the protocol of T-maze tests using a modified automated apparatus for assessing the learning and memory functions in mice.

Forced alternation and left-right discrimination tasks using the T-maze have been widely used to assess working and reference memory, respectively, in ...

Neuroscience

Novel Object Recognition and Object Location Behavioral Testing in Mice on a Budget

Ethologically relevant behavioral testing is a critical component of any study that uses mouse models to study the cognitive effects of various physiological or pathological changes. The object location task (OLT) and the novel object recognition task (NORT) are two effective behavioral tasks commonly used to reveal the function and relative health of specific brain regions involved in memory. While both of these tests exploit the inherent preference of mice for the novelty to reveal memory for previously encountered objects, the OLT primarily evaluates spatial learning, which relies heavily on hippocampal activity. The NORT, in contrast, evaluates non-spatial learning of object identity, which relies on multiple brain regions. Both tasks require an open-field-testing arena, objects with equivalent intrinsic value to mice, appropriate environmental cues, and video recording equipment and the software. Commercially available systems, while convenient, can be costly. This manuscript details a simple, cost-effective method for building the arenas and setting up the equipment necessary to perform the OLT and NORT. Furthermore, the manuscript describes an efficient testing protocol that incorporates both OLT and NORT and provides typical methods for data acquisition and analysis, as well as representative results. Successful completion of these tests can provide valuable insight into the memory function of various mouse model systems and appraise the underlying neural regions that support these functions.

Here we provide a protocol which includes comprehensive instructions for the economical establishment of murine object location and novel object recognition behavioral testing, including the design, cost, and construction of required equipment as well as execution of behavioral testing, data collection, and analysis.

Ethologically relevant behavioral testing is a critical component of any study that uses mouse models to study the cognitive effects of various ...

A Behavioral Test Battery for the Repeated Assessment of Motor Skills, Mood, and Cognition in Mice

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and dysfunctions in mood and cognition are common and often shared symptoms in neurodegenerative diseases. Shown here is a behavioral test battery for motor, mood, and cognition, which can be repeatedly tested in a longitudinal study. This battery assesses the overall behavioral phenotype in mice by examining each domain of behavior with at least two independent well-accepted tests (i.e., open-field test and rotarod test for motor function, social interaction test, elevated plus maze test, and forced swim test for emotional function, and Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test for cognitive function). Therefore, this sensitive and comprehensive test battery is a powerful tool for the study of behavioral alternation in neurodegeneration.

A comprehensive behavioral test battery of motor skills, mood&#8212;including social interaction, depression, and anxiety&#8212;and cognition is designed for the repeated assessment of neurodegeneration-related behavioral changes in mice.

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and ...

Assessment of Memory Function in Pilocarpine-induced Epileptic Mice

Cognitive impairment is one of the most common comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy. To recapitulate epilepsy-associated cognitive decline in an animal model of epilepsy, we generated pilocarpine-treated chronic epileptic mice. We present a protocol for three different behavioral tests using these epileptic mice: novel object location (NL), novel object recognition (NO), and pattern separation (PS) tests to evaluate learning and memory for places, objects, and contexts, respectively. We explain how to set the behavioral apparatus and provide experimental procedures for the NL, NO, and PS tests following an open field test that measures the animals&#8217; basal locomotor activities. We also describe the technical advantages of the NL, NO, and PS tests with respect to other behavioral tests for assessing memory function in epileptic mice. Finally, we discuss possible causes and solutions for epileptic mice failing to make 30 s of good contact with the objects during the familiarization sessions, which is a critical step for successful memory tests. Thus, this protocol provides detailed information about how to assess epilepsy-associated memory impairments using mice. The NL, NO, and PS tests are simple, efficient assays that are appropriate for the evaluation of different kinds of memory in epileptic mice.

This article presents experimental procedures for assessing memory impairments in pilocarpine-induced epileptic mice. This protocol can be used to study the pathophysiologic mechanisms of epilepsy-associated cognitive decline, which is one of the most common comorbidities in epilepsy.

Cognitive impairment is one of the most common comorbidities in temporal lobe epilepsy. To recapitulate epilepsy-associated cognitive decline in an animal ...

Simultaneous Monitoring of Wireless Electrophysiology and Memory Behavioral Test as a Tool to Study Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Brainwaves amplitude obtained from electroencephalography (EEG) has been well-recognized as a basis for cognitive capacity, memory, and learning on animals and humans. Adult neurogenesis mechanism is also linked to memory and learning improvement. Traditionally, researchers used to assess learning and memory parameters in rodent models by behavioral tasks. Therefore, the simultaneous monitoring of behavioral changes and EEG is particularly interesting in correlating data between brain activity and task-related behaviors. However, most of the equipment required to perform both studies are either complex, expensive, or uses a wired setup network that hinders the natural animals&#8217; movement. In this study, EEG was recorded with a wireless electrophysiology device along with the execution of a novel object recognition task (NORT). The animal&#8217;s behavior was monitored simultaneously by a video tracking system. Both recordings were analyzed offline by their timestamps which were synched to link EEG signals with the animal&#8217;s actions. Subjects consist of adult Wistar rats after medium-term environmental enrichment treatment. Six skull screw electrodes were fixed in pairs on both hemispheres over frontal, central, and parietal regions and were referenced to an electrode located posterior of the nasal bone. NORT protocol consists of exposing the animal to two identical objects for 10 min. After 2 h and 24 h, one of the objects was replaced with a novel one. Exploration time for each object was monitored by a behavioral tracking software (BTS) and EEG data recording. The analysis of the EEG synced with behavioral data consists of estimations of alpha and beta relative band power and comparisons between novel object recognition versus familiar object exploration, between three experimental stages. In this manuscript, we have discussed electrodes manufacturing process, epidural electrodes implantation surgery, environmental enrichment protocol, NORT protocol, BTS setup, EEG &#8211; BTS coupling for simultaneous monitoring in real-time, and EEG data analysis based on automatic events detection.

The protocol presented here provides information on the simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) and behavioral assessment in real-time. We have discussed all steps involved in this protocol as an attractive solution for researchers in many fields of neuroscience, particularly in learning and memory areas.

Brainwaves amplitude obtained from electroencephalography (EEG) has been well-recognized as a basis for cognitive capacity, memory, and learning on ...

A Within-Subject Experimental Design using an Object Location Task in Rats

Object place recognition is a prominent method used to investigate spatial memory in rodents. This object place recognition memory forms the basis of the object location task. This paper provides an extensive protocol to guide the establishment of an object location task with the option of up to four repetitions using the same cohort of rats. Both weak and strong encoding protocols can be used to study short- and long-term spatial memories of varying strength and to enable the implementation of relevant memory-inhibiting or -enhancing manipulations. In addition, repetition of the test with the counterbalancing presented here allows the combination of results from two or more tests for within-subject comparison to reduce variability between rats. This method helps to increase statistical power and is strongly recommended, particularly when running experiments that produce high variation in individual behavior. This directly refines the study by increasing the data obtained from each animal and reducing the overall number of animals needed.&#160;Finally, implementation of the repeated object location task increases the efficiency of studies that involve surgical procedures by saving time and labor.

This protocol provides detailed steps for an object location task with four repetitions using the same cohort of rats. Weak and strong encoding can produce short- and long-term memories. The flexibility of the protocol with repetition can be beneficial for studies involving surgical operations by saving time and labor.

Object place recognition is a prominent method used to investigate spatial memory in rodents. This object place recognition memory forms the basis of the ...

Assessment of Spontaneous Alternation, Novel Object Recognition and Limb Clasping in Transgenic Mouse Models of Amyloid-&#946; and Tau Neuropathology

Here we describe a staged, behavioral testing approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional motor behaviors in transgenic mouse models of &#946;-amyloidosis and tauopathy. The paradigm includes tests for spontaneous alternation in a Y-maze, novel object recognition, and limb clasping. These tests were selected because they: 1) interrogate function of cognitive or motor domains and the correlate neural circuitry relevant to the human disease state, 2) have clearly defined endpoints, 3) have easily implementable quality control checks, 4) can be run in a moderate throughput format, and 5) require little intervention by the investigator. These methods are designed for investigators looking to screen compounds for activity in short-term and working memory tasks, or functional motor behaviors associated with Alzheimer's disease mouse models. The methods described here use behavioral tests that engage a number of different brain regions including hippocampus and various cortical areas. Investigators that desire cognitive tests that specifically assess cognition mediated by a single brain region could use these techniques to supplement other behavioral tests.

Described here is a staged, behavioral screening approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional motor behaviors in transgenic mouse models of &#946;-amyloidosis and tauopathy. These methods are optimized to screen compounds for activity in short-term and working memory tasks.

Here we describe a staged, behavioral testing approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional ...

Medicine

An Objective and Reproducible Test of Olfactory Learning and Discrimination in Mice

Olfaction is the predominant sensory modality in mice and influences many important behaviors, including foraging, predator detection, mating, and parenting. Importantly, mice can be trained to associate novel odors with specific behavioral responses to provide insight into olfactory circuit function. This protocol details the procedure for training mice on a Go/No-Go operant learning task. In this approach, mice are trained on hundreds of automated trials daily for 2&#8211;4 weeks and can then be tested on novel Go/No-Go odor pairs to assess olfactory discrimination, or be used for studies on how odor learning alters the structure or function of the olfactory circuit. Additionally, the mouse olfactory bulb (OB) features ongoing integration of adult-born neurons. Interestingly, olfactory learning increases both the survival and synaptic connections of these adult-born neurons. Therefore, this protocol can be combined with other biochemical, electrophysiological, and imaging techniques to study learning and activity-dependent factors that mediate neuronal survival and plasticity.

Here, we train mice on an associative learning task to test odor discrimination. This protocol also allows for studies on learning-induced structural changes in the brain.