We thank Joel Sanneman and Dr. Philine Wangemann of the Confocal Microscopy Core, funded by the Kansas State University College of Veterinary Medicine, for their support of efforts to develop this technique. pCBASceI was a gift from Maria Jasin (Addgene plasmid # 26477)30. U2OS DR-GFP cells were a kind gift from Maria Jasin18.

Please note, this protocol is written for U2OS cells containing an I-SceI recognition site18. The cells need not be U2OS but must contain the I-SceI site. The protocol may need to be adjusted (e.g., number of cells seeded and incubation times) depending on the type of cells used.
1. Defining the Kinetics of DSB Repair Complex Formation
<ol>
	<li>Grow U20S-DRGFP cells on a 10 cm tissue culture plate until 85&#8211;90% confluent.</li>
	<li>Remove the media and incubate at room temperature (RT) in 3 mL of EDTA for 2 min.</li>
	<li>Replace EDTA with 1 mL of trypsin and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 5 min. Ensure that the cells are detached from the surface of the plate by viewing under a microscope. Neutralize trypsin with 5 mL of Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin.</li>
	<li>Determine the concentration of cells in this suspension using a hemocytometer and the trypan blue exclusion method.</li>
	<li>Seed 6 x 103 cells/well in 200 &#181;L of a glass-bottom 96-well plate. Alternatively, seed 4 x 106 cells in 8 mL on 12 mm coverslips placed in a 10 cm plate. 
	NOTE: Each well or coverslip represents a single time point, including the control.</li>
	<li>Grow the cells overnight at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Inducing DSBs
	<ol>
		<li>Replace the media from the 96-well plate/10 cm dish with H2O2 diluted to a concentration of 25 &#181;M with DMEM + 10% FBS and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 1 h.</li>
		<li>Wash the cells 3x with 1x PBS and replace with fresh DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. Incubate the cells at 37 &#176;C for 0, 1, 4, 8, 24, and 48 h. Ensure that fresh dilutions of H2O2 are used for each experiment. 
		NOTE: To avoid killing cells at the H2O2 concentration used here, ensure that the dose of damage is low enough such that the bulk of cells will avoid apoptosis and senescence. It is critical to observe the recovery process. This is best achieved by measuring sensitivity to a range of doses. Perform an MTT assay or other cell viability assay to determine the minimal concentration of hydrogen peroxide that can be used.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fixing and permeabilizing cells
	<ol>
		<li>Wash the cells 3 times with 1x PBS. Remove a coverslip from the 10 cm plate for each time point and place it in a single well of a 24-well plate for fixing. Use the needle and forceps to carefully remove the coverslip and avoiding scratching cells off the coverslip surface.</li>
		<li>Fix the cells by incubating for 15 min with 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) at designated times after 1 h of H2O2 exposure and fresh DMEM replacement (0, 1, 4, 8, 24, and 48 h).</li>
		<li>Wash the fixed coverslips 3 times with PBS. Permeabilize the cells with 0.5% non-ionic detergent diluted in 1x PBS. Incubate for 15 min at RT, before washing 3x with PBS. 
		NOTE: After permeabilization, storage of coverslips is possible in PBS at 4 &#176;C for at least a week.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Repair complex visualization
	<ol>
		<li>Block the 96-well plate/coverslips in a solution of 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) and 0.1% non-ionic detergent diluted in 1x PBS (3% BSA solution) for 1 h at RT.</li>
		<li>Incubate with primary antibodies that target the repair protein of interest, diluted according to the manufacturer&#39;s specifications in 3% BSA solution for 1 h at RT, before washing 3 times with 1x PBS.</li>
		<li>Incubate the 96-well plate/coverslips with secondary antibody diluted according to the manufacturer&#8217;s protocol in 3% BSA solution. Confirm that the secondary fluorophores do not have overlapping excitation or emission spectra.</li>
		<li>After washing the cells with PBS 3 times add DAPI, diluted according to the manufacturer&#8217;s specifications in 1x PBS and incubate at RT for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Mount the coverslips onto slides with a drop of mounting agent, making sure the cell-side faces down. Press the coverslips carefully and soak up any excess mounting agent with a wipe.</li>
		<li>Seal the coverslips with fast-drying transparent nail polish and ensure a complete seal of the coverslip with the slide.</li>
		<li>Take the confocal microscope images by focusing on the DAPI channel, before other channels (with signals from DNA repair gene of interest) to avoid introducing bias into the experiment.</li>
		<li>Alternatively, images can be acquired by taking Z-sections of the desired region and condensing the image into a single plane to visualize all detectable foci. 
		NOTE: If DSB resolution or protein of interest is not observed at time points chosen, determine when DSBs resolve by selecting a wide range of time points initially (0&#8211;48 h post DSB induction). The time points of interest will vary by the method of DSB induction and the repair protein of interest.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Use free ImageJ software to define the nuclei in the immunofluorescence microscopy images. 
	NOTE: To open microscope images, the Bio-Formats plugin must be installed in ImageJ.
	<ol>
		<li>Open the confocal images (.czi or .tif) by dragging the image file into the ImageJ window, or by selecting &#34;Bio-Formats Importer&#34; from the &#34;Plugin&#34; toolbar in ImageJ. 
		NOTE: The &#34;Bio-Formats Import Option&#34; window will appear.</li>
		<li>Select &#34;Split Channels&#34; to split the image into constitutive DAPI and fluorescent images within the &#34;Bio-Formats Import Option&#34; window.</li>
		<li>Select &#34;Colorized&#34; in &#34;Color options&#34; from the drop-down menu. Select &#34;OK&#34; to open the DAPI and Histone H2AX (H2AX) images as separate windows and choose the DAPI image.</li>
		<li>Select the &#34;Image&#34; toolbar and &#34;Adjust Threshold&#34; option to select nuclei. 
		NOTE: A &#34;Threshold&#34; window will appear.</li>
		<li>Adjust the image threshold by sliding the bottom bar of the &#34;Threshold&#34; window completely to the right. Adjust the top bar until the nuclei appear completely red with distinct outlines, and the background black. DO NOT select apply. Close the &#34;Adjust Threshold&#34; window.</li>
		<li>Select the &#34;Analyze&#34; toolbar and &#34;Analyze Particles&#34; option. See an &#34;Analyze Particles&#34; window appearing on the screen.</li>
		<li>Input the minimum size of a nucleus. 
		NOTE: Particles below the size inputted will not be counted as nuclei.</li>
		<li>From the &#34;Show&#34; dropdown menu, select &#34;Outlines&#34;. Select the &#34;Add to Manager&#34; option. Click &#34;OK&#34; to open an &#34;ROI Manager&#34; window. 
		NOTE: Outlines of nuclei will appear in a separate window.</li>
		<li>Assign numbers to the nuclei that can be selected from the &#34;ROI Manager&#34; window.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Use ImageJ to quantify H2AX foci in immunofluorescence microscopy images.
	<ol>
		<li>Select the &#34;H2AX&#34; foci window (stained with fluorescently conjugated secondary antibody). Then, select the &#34;Process&#34; toolbar and choose &#34;Find Maxima&#34; to find the foci within the nuclei. 
		NOTE: A &#34;Find Maxima&#34; window will open.</li>
		<li>Choose the &#34;Single Points&#34; option from the &#34;Output Type&#34; dropdown menu and select &#34;Preview point selection&#34; to visualize the maxima/foci. Input a &#34;Noise Tolerance&#34; value depending on the fluorescence intensity of the image (Figure 1). Check for the appearance of a white window with small black dots. 
		NOTE: These dots represent the H2AX foci/maxima that have been detected. The noise tolerance value must be maintained constant for all images being analyzed. A low/high noise tolerance will depict too many/few maxima (foci) within the nucleus and will not be an accurate representation of the foci within the nucleus.</li>
		<li>Select the nuclei for which H2AX foci must be quantified for from the &#34;ROI Manager&#34; window. Select all the nuclei by checking the &#34;show all&#34; option.</li>
		<li>Select &#34;Measure&#34; to measure the number of maxima/foci within the selected nuclei. 
		NOTE: The number of maxima/foci appear as multiples of 255, i.e., one maximum has a &#34;RawIntDen&#34; (Integrated density) reading of 255.</li>
		<li>Copy the &#34;RawIntDen&#34; values and paste them into software for data analysis.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Analyzing Localization to a Long-lasting Double-strand DNA Break
<ol>
	<li>Seed cells on 96-well plates/coverslips as described in sections 1.1 and 1.2.</li>
	<li>Induction of double-strand DNA breaks
	<ol>
		<li>Transfect cells with the I-SceI expression vector using a lipid-based transfection reagent according to the manufacturer&#39;s specifications. Wait 24&#8211;72 h after transfection to maximize the endonuclease expression. Determine if the transfection was successful by locating cells with a singular large nuclear &#947;-H2AX focus.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Acquisition of images
	<ol>
		<li>Fix, permeabilize, block, and wash the 96-well plate/coverslips as described in section 1.8.</li>
		<li>Co-incubate cells with an antibody against &#947;-H2AX and the repair protein of interest (here, a primary antibody against RAD51 was used) diluted according to the manufacturer&#39;s specifications in 3% BSA solution.</li>
		<li>Wash the 96-well plate/coverslips 3 times with 1x PBS. Incubate the 96-well plate/coverslips with secondary antibody diluted according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol in 3% BSA solution. Confirm that the secondary fluorophores do not have overlapping excitation or emission spectra.</li>
		<li>Identify cells that have a large nuclear &#947;-H2AX focus. Only take pictures of these cells to avoid bias.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analysis of long-lasting I-SceI induced foci
	<ol>
		<li>Analyze the long-lasting foci manually, by counting both the number of cells that have the large &#947;-H2AX foci and co-localized foci of the repair protein of interest.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The analysis of DNA damage repair in general and the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks specifically is an active area of research because its consequences span tumorigenesis to basic biology6,20. This manuscript details an approach that accurately dissects the contribution of RAD51 and &#947;-H2AX proteins to the resolution of DSBs through HR. Looking forward, this method can be used to elucidate additional functions of repair proteins at DSBs<sup class="xref"...

Each day, every cell in the human body is bombarded with an estimated 10,000 DNA lesions1. This existential threat puts us at risk for mutations, oncogenesis as well as cell death. To protect genome fidelity, mammalian cells have evolved to respond to DNA damage with a complex series of protein associations and modifications. This response is organized into multiple pathways, collectively known as the DNA damage response (DDR)2,3. The DDR consists of the accumulation of DNA repair proteins at DNA lesions, coordinated both temporally and spatially. DDR frequently induces cell cycle arrest to avoid the propagation or intensification of damage that can occur during the replication of damaged DNA2,4,5. In turn, it is also necessary for the cellular viability to turn off cell cycle arrest by disassociating repair complexes after repair has been completed.
Among the various types of DNA damage, DSBs are the most deleterious. Failure to repair DSBs can result in chromosome rearrangements or large-scale deletions such as the loss of entire chromosome arms. The repair of DSBs is divided into two pathways6,7,8. Homologous recombination (HR) requires a sister chromosome to use as a DNA template and thus is limited to late S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle9,10. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) does not have these restrictions but can cause small deletions when repairing DSBs11,12.
DSB repair specifically and the DDR in general are active areas of investigation. Despite being organized into conveniently separated pathways, there is a great deal of redundancy. Indeed, many proteins (BRCA1, BRCA2, and the RPA complex for example) are involved in multiple pathways13,14,15,16. The repair of a lesion by one pathway, can lead to a damage intermediate that must be repaired by another pathway14. The intertwining of these pathways, combined with their complex task of recruiting the right proteins to the correct place for the precise amount of time necessary, requires a multi-tiered regulatory process.
A recent report highlights the intricacies of DDR by demonstrating that repair complex formation, resolution, and localization can each separately be impaired17. The overall goal of the following protocol is to definitively dissect the ability of cells to repair DSB. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, accumulation of repair proteins at the sites of damage can be visualized at the representative time points following the induction of DSBs.
This technique has several advantages to commonly used approaches. Frequently, repair is investigated at single time points and incapable of representing the dynamic process of assembly and dissociation of repair complexes. Observing the full range of repair from the initial activation to the full resolution ensures that a delay in repair is not misidentified as complete inhibition. Conversely, it assures that the induction of a repair response that is unable to inactivate said response is not misidentified as the normal or the excessive activation.
Delayed protein complex formation and the mis-localization of repair proteins, however, may not be unambiguously distinguished with this approach. To determine if repair proteins are mis-localized versus delayed in their localization, a &#34;long-lasting&#34; DSB can be introduced through enzymatic cleavage of cellular DNA. The resulting lesion is recut each time it is repaired, resulting in a distinct large nuclear repair focus and removing the temporal restriction from recruitment. This can be achieved by modifying the existing approach with the use of a rare cutting endonuclease (e.g., I-SceI) to induce a long-lasting DSB. The longevity of DSBs enables the visualization of elusive repair proteins by immunofluorescence microscopy. The enhanced abundance could also improve the visualization when detection is hindered by limitation in the antibody quality, a feature that could be useful when lesser studied proteins are identified as having an impact on DNA repair.
Notably, we provide explicit instructions for a free image processing and analysis software (e.g., ImageJ). This removes a major financial barrier in image analysis, opening the interrogation of DNA damage repair to a wider audience.

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			<td>12mm Coverslips</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89015-725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16% Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>28908</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td>24-well plate</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82050-892</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>96-well glass bottom plate</td>
			<td>Cellvis</td>
			<td>P96-1.5H-N</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Anti-H2AX Alexa488</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>05-636-AF488</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Rad51 (D4B10)&#160;</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td>8875S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bio-formats plugin for ImageJ</td>
			<td>National Institute of Health (NIH)&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/plugins/index.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97061-416</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM, High Glucose</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12100046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15576-028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89510-194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG Alexa594</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;A-11012&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen Peroxide</td>
			<td>sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>216763-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ Software</td>
			<td>National Institute of Health (NIH)&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>I-SceI Expression Vector</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>26477</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nail Polish- Insta Dri</td>
			<td>Sally and Hansen</td>
			<td>Clearly Quick (103)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Bio Basic</td>
			<td>PD8117</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProLong Gold Antifade Reagent</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>P36930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T4049-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TurboFect Transfection Reagent</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>R0531</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP337-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterizing dna repair processes at transient and long-lasting double-strand dna breaks by immunofluorescence microscopy

The repair of double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in DNA is a highly coordinated process, necessitating the formation and resolution of multi-protein repair complexes. This process is regulated by a myriad of proteins that promote the association and disassociation of proteins to these lesions. Thanks in large part to the ability to perform functional screens of a vast library of proteins, there is a greater appreciation of the genes necessary for the double-strand DNA break repair. Often knockout or chemical inhibitor screens identify proteins involved in repair processes by using increased toxicity as a marker for a protein that is required for DSB repair. Although useful for identifying novel cellular proteins involved in maintaining genome fidelity, functional analysis requires the determination of whether the protein of interest promotes localization, formation, or resolution of repair complexes. 
The accumulation of repair proteins can be readily detected as distinct nuclear foci by immunofluorescence microscopy. Thus, association and disassociation of these proteins at sites of DNA damage can be accessed by observing these nuclear foci at representative intervals after the induction of double-strand DNA breaks. This approach can also identify mis-localized repair factor proteins, if repair defects do not simultaneously occur with incomplete delays in repair. In this scenario, long-lasting double-strand DNA breaks can be engineered by expressing a rare cutting endonuclease (e.g., I-SceI) in cells where the recognition site for the said enzyme has been integrated into the cellular genome. The resulting lesion is particularly hard to resolve as faithful repair will reintroduce the enzyme's recognition site, prompting another round of cleavage. As a result, differences in the kinetics of repair are eliminated. If repair complexes are not formed, localization has been impeded. This protocol describes the methodology necessary to identify changes in repair kinetics as well as repair protein localization.

Figure 1 depicts the selection of the correct noise discrimination for maxima/foci quantification using ImageJ. The merged images of DAPI and the repair protein of interest are on the left panel. Figure 1A shows a noise discrimination of 90 and marks the correct number of foci. Nuclei on the edge (depicted with a pink arrow) and foci outside the nuclei (depicted with a yellow arrow) are not counted during the quantification. <str...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterizing DNA Repair Processes at Transient and Long-lasting Double-strand DNA Breaks by Immunofluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

Characterizing DNA Repair Processes at Transient and Long-lasting Double-strand DNA Breaks by Immunofluorescence Microscopy

Repair of double-strand DNA breaks is a dynamic process, requiring not only formation of repair complexes at the breaks, but also their resolution after the lesion is addressed. Here, we use immunofluorescence microscopy for transient and long-lasting double-stranded breaks as a tool to dissect this genome maintenance mechanism.

The repair of double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in DNA is a highly coordinated process, necessitating the formation and resolution of multi-protein repair ...

characterizing-dna-repair-processes-at-transient-long-lasting-double

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Cancer Research

9.0K Views.  Kansas State University. Repair of double-strand DNA breaks is a dynamic process, requiring not only formation of repair complexes at the breaks, but also their resolution after the lesion is addressed. Here, we use immunofluorescence microscopy for transient and long-lasting double-stranded breaks as a tool to dissect this genome maintenance mechanism.

Video: Characterizing DNA Repair Processes at Transient and Long-lasting Double-strand DNA Breaks by Immunofluorescence Microscopy

Cell-Free DNA Integrity Analysis in Urine Samples

Although the presence of circulating cell-free DNA in plasma or serum has been widely shown to be a suitable source of biomarkers for many types of cancer, few studies have focused on the potential use of urine cell-free (UCF) DNA. Starting from the hypotheses that normal apoptotic cells produce highly fragmented DNA and that cancer cells release longer DNA, the potential role of UCF DNA integrity was evaluated as an early diagnostic marker capable of distinguishing between patients with prostate or bladder cancer and healthy individuals.
A UCF DNA integrity analysis is proposed on the basis of four quantitative real-time PCRs of four sequences longer than 250 bp: c-MYC, BCAS1, HER2, and AR. Sequences that frequently have an increased DNA copy number in bladder and prostate cancers were chosen for the analysis, but the method is flexible, and these genes could be substituted with other genes of interest. The potential utility of UCF DNA as a source of biomarkers has already been demonstrated for urologic malignancies, thus paving the way for further studies on UCF DNA characterization. The UCF DNA integrity test has the advantage of being non-invasive, rapid, and easy to perform, with only a few milliliters of urine needed to carry out the analysis.

A method for analyzing DNA integrity in the cell-free supernatant fraction of urine samples is proposed. The method is suitable for early detection of urological malignancies and has proven accurate for the early diagnosis of bladder cancer.

Although the presence of circulating cell-free DNA in plasma or serum has been widely shown to be a suitable source of biomarkers for many types of ...

Application of Laser Micro-irradiation for Examination of Single and Double Strand Break Repair in Mammalian Cells

Highly coordinated DNA repair pathways exist to detect, excise and replace damaged DNA bases, and coordinate repair of DNA strand breaks. While molecular biology techniques have clarified structure, enzymatic functions, and kinetics of repair proteins, there is still a need to understand how repair is coordinated within the nucleus. Laser micro-irradiation offers a powerful tool for inducing DNA damage and monitoring the recruitment of repair proteins. Induction of DNA damage by laser micro-irradiation can occur with a range of wavelengths, and users can reliably induce single strand breaks, base lesions and double strand breaks with a range of doses. Here, laser micro-irradiation is used to examine repair of single and double strand breaks induced by two common confocal laser wavelengths, 355 nm and 405 nm. Further, proper characterization of the applied laser dose for inducing specific damage mixtures is described, so users can reproducibly perform laser micro-irradiation data acquisition and analysis.

Confocal fluorescence microscopy and laser micro-irradiation offer tools for inducing DNA damage and monitoring the response of DNA repair proteins in selected sub-nuclear areas. This technique has significantly advanced our knowledge of damage detection, signaling, and recruitment. This manuscript demonstrates these technologies to examine single and double strand break repair.

Highly coordinated DNA repair pathways exist to detect, excise and replace damaged DNA bases, and coordinate repair of DNA strand breaks. While molecular ...

Evaluating In Vitro DNA Damage Using Comet Assay

DNA damage is a common phenomenon for each cell during its lifespan, and is defined as an alteration of the chemical structure of genomic DNA. Cancer therapies, such as radio- and chemotherapy, introduce enormous amount of additional DNA damage, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis to limit cancer progression. Quantitative assessment of DNA damage during experimental cancer therapy is a key step to justify the effectiveness of a genotoxic agent. In this study, we focus on a single cell electrophoresis assay, also known as the comet assay, which can quantify single and double-strand DNA breaks in vitro. The comet assay is a DNA damage quantification method that is efficient and easy to perform, and has low time/budget demands and high reproducibility. Here, we highlight the utility of the comet assay for a preclinical study by evaluating the genotoxic effect of olaparib/temozolomide combination therapy to U251 glioma cells.

Evaluating In Vitro DNA Damage Using Comet Assay

The comet assay is an efficient method to detect DNA damage including single and double-stranded DNA breaks. We describe alkaline and neutral comet assays to measure DNA damage in cancer cells to evaluate the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy.

DNA damage is a common phenomenon for each cell during its lifespan, and is defined as an alteration of the chemical structure of genomic DNA. Cancer ...

Immunofluorescence Microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 for Analyzing the Formation and Repair of DNA Double-strand Breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are serious DNA lesions. Analysis of the formation and repair of DSB is relevant in a broad spectrum of research areas including genome integrity, genotoxicity, radiation biology, aging, cancer, and drug development. In response to DSB, the histone H2AX is phosphorylated at Serine 139 in a region of several megabase pairs forming discrete nuclear foci detectable by immunofluorescence microscopy. In addition, 53BP1 (p53 binding protein 1) is another important DSB-responsive protein promoting repair of DSB by nonhomologous end-joining while preventing homologous recombination. According to the specific functions of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1, the combined analysis of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 by immunofluorescence microscopy may be a reasonable approach for a detailed analysis of DSB. This manuscript provides a step-by-step protocol supplemented with methodical notes for performing the technique. Specifically, the influence of the cell cycle on &#947;H2AX foci patterns is demonstrated in normal fibroblasts of the cell line NHDF. Further, the value of the &#947;H2AX foci as a biomarker is depicted in x-ray irradiated lymphocytes of a healthy individual. Finally, genetic instability is investigated in CD34+ cells of a patient with acute myeloid leukemia by immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1.

This manuscript provides a protocol for the analysis of DNA double-strand breaks by immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are serious DNA lesions. Analysis of the formation and repair of DSB is relevant in a broad spectrum of research areas ...

Characterization of Tumor Cells Using a Medical Wire for Capturing Circulating Tumor Cells: A 3D Approach Based on Immunofluorescence and DNA FISH

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are associated with poor survival in metastatic cancer. Their identification, phenotyping, and genotyping could lead to a better understanding of tumor heterogeneity and thus facilitate the selection of patients for personalized treatment. However, this is hampered because of the rarity of CTCs. We present an innovative approach for sampling a high volume of the patient blood and obtaining information about presence, phenotype, and gene translocation of CTCs. The method combines immunofluorescence staining and DNA fluorescent-in-situ-hybridization (DNA FISH) and is based on a functionalized medical wire. This wire is an innovative device that permits the in vivo isolation of CTCs from a large volume of peripheral blood. The blood volume screened by a 30-min administration of the wire is approximately 1.5-3 L. To demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) expression and the chromosomal translocation of the ALK gene were determined in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines captured by the functionalized wire and stained with an immuno-DNA FISH approach. Our main challenge was to perform the assay on a 3D structure, the functionalized wire, and to determine immuno-phenotype and FISH signals on this support using a conventional fluorescence microscope. The results obtained indicate that catching CTCs and analyzing their phenotype and chromosomal rearrangement could potentially represent a new companion diagnostic approach and provide an innovative strategy for improving personalized cancer treatments.

We present a new approach to characterize tumor cells. We combined immunofluorescence with DNA fluorescent-in-situ-hybridization to evaluate cells captured by a functionalized medical wire capable of in vivo enriching CTCs directly from patient blood.

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are associated with poor survival in metastatic cancer. Their identification, phenotyping, and genotyping could lead to a ...

Evaluation of Colorectal Cancer Risk and Prevalence by Stool DNA Integrity Detection

Nowadays, stool DNA can be isolated and analyzed by several methods. The long fragments of DNA in stool can be detected by a qPCR assay, which provides a reliable probability of the presence of pre-neoplastic or neoplastic colorectal lesions. This method, called fluorescence long DNA (FL-DNA), is a fast, non-invasive procedure that is an improvement upon the primary prevention system. This method is based on evaluation of fecal DNA integrity by quantitative amplification of specific targets of genomic DNA. In particular, the evaluation of DNA fragments longer than 200 bp allows for detection of patients with colorectal lesions with very high specificity. However, this system and all currently available stool DNA tests present some general issues that need to be addressed (e.g., the frequency at which tests should be carried out and optimal number of stool samples collected at each timepoint for each individual). However, the main advantage of FL-DNA is the possibility to use it in association with a test currently used in the CRC screening program, known as the immunochemical-based fecal occult blood test (iFOBT). Indeed, both tests can be performed on the same sample, reducing costs and achieving a better prediction of the eventual presence of colorectal lesions.

The presented diagnostic FL-DNA kit is a time-saving and user-friendly method to determine the reliable probability of the presence of colorectal cancer lesions.

Nowadays, stool DNA can be isolated and analyzed by several methods. The long fragments of DNA in stool can be detected by a qPCR assay, which provides a ...

Detection and Monitoring of Tumor Associated Circulating DNA in Patient Biofluids

Complications associated with upfront and repeat surgical tissue sampling present the need for minimally invasive platforms capable of molecular sub-classification and temporal monitoring of tumor response to therapy. Here, we describe our dPCR-based method for the detection of tumor somatic mutations in cell free DNA (cfDNA), readily available in&#160;patient biofluids. Although limited in the number of mutations that can be tested for in each assay, this method provides a high level of sensitivity and specificity. Monitoring of mutation abundance, as calculated by MAF, allows for the evaluation of tumor response to therapy, thereby providing a much-needed supplement to radiographic imaging.

Here, we present a protocol to detect tumor somatic mutations in circulating DNA present in patient biological fluids (biofluids). Our droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR)-based method enables quantification of the tumor mutation allelic frequency (MAF), facilitating a minimally invasive complement to diagnosis and temporal monitoring of tumor response.

Complications associated with upfront and repeat surgical tissue sampling present the need for minimally invasive platforms capable of molecular ...

In Vivo Immunofluorescence Localization for Assessment of Therapeutic and Diagnostic Antibody Biodistribution in Cancer Research

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are important tools in cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. They are used to unravel the role of proteins in tumorigenesis, can be directed to cancer biomarkers enabling tumor detection and characterization, and can be used for cancer therapy as mAbs or antibody-drug conjugates to activate immune effector cells, to inhibit signaling pathways, or directly kill cells carrying the specific antigen. Despite clinical advancements in the development and production of novel and highly specific mAbs, diagnostic and therapeutic applications can be impaired by the complexity and heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment. Thus, for the development of efficient antibody-based therapies and diagnostics, it is crucial to assess the biodistribution and interaction of the antibody-based conjugate with the living tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe In Vivo Immunofluorescence Localization (IVIL) as a new approach to study interactions of antibody-based therapeutics and diagnostics in the in vivo physiological and pathological conditions. In this technique, a therapeutic or diagnostic antigen-specific antibody is intravenously injected in&#160;vivo and localized ex vivo with a secondary antibody in isolated tumors. IVIL, therefore, reflects the in vivo biodistribution of antibody-based drugs and targeting agents. Two IVIL applications are described assessing the biodistribution and accessibility of antibody-based contrast agents for molecular imaging of breast cancer. This protocol will allow future users to adapt the IVIL method for their own antibody-based research applications.

The in vivo immunofluorescence localization (IVIL) method can be used to examine in vivo biodistribution of antibodies and antibody conjugates for oncological purposes in living organisms using a combination of in vivo tumor targeting and ex vivo immunostaining methods.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are important tools in cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. They are used to unravel the role of proteins in ...

Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation in Gastrointestinal Cancer

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic change that is biologically meaningful and a frequent focus of cancer research. Genome-wide DNA methylation is a useful measure to provide an accurate analysis of the methylation status of gastrointestinal (GI) malignancies. Given the multiple potential translational uses of DNA methylation analysis, practicing clinicians and others new to DNA methylation studies need to be able to understand step by step how these genome-wide analyses are performed. The goal of this protocol is to provide a detailed description of how this method is used for the biomarker identification in GI malignancies. Importantly, we describe three critical steps that are needed to obtain accurate results during genome-wide analysis. Clearly and concisely written, these three methods are often lacking and not noticeable to those new to epigenetic studies. We used 48 samples of a GI malignancy (gastric cancer) to highlight practically how genome-wide DNA methylation analysis can be performed for GI malignancies.

Herein, we describe a procedure for genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation in gastrointestinal cancers. The procedure is of relevance to studies that investigate relationships between methylation patterns of genes and factors contributing to carcinogenesis in gastrointestinal cancers.

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic change that is biologically meaningful and a frequent focus of cancer research. Genome-wide DNA methylation is ...

Immunofluorescence Imaging of DNA Damage and Repair Foci in Human Colon Cancer Cells

The purpose of the manuscript is to provide a step-by-step protocol for performing immunofluorescence microscopy to study the radiation-induced DNA damage response induced by neutron-gamma mixed-beam used in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). Specifically, the proposed methodology is applied for the detection of repair proteins activation which can be visualized as foci using antibodies specific to DNA double-strand breaks (DNA-DSBs). DNA repair foci were assessed by immunofluorescence in colon cancer cells (HCT-116) after irradiation with the neutron-mixed beam. DNA-DSBs are the most genotoxic lesions and are repaired in mammalian cells by two major pathways: non-homologous end-joining pathway (NHEJ) and homologous recombination repair (HRR). The frequencies of foci, immunochemically stained, for commonly used markers in radiobiology like &#947;-H2AX, 53BP1 are associated with DNA-DSB number and are considered as efficient and sensitive markers for monitoring the induction and repair of DNA-DSBs. It was established that &#947;-H2AX foci attract repair proteins, leading to a higher concentration of repair factors near a DSB. To monitor DNA damage at the cellular level, immunofluorescence analysis for the presence of DNA-PKcs representative repair protein foci from the NHEJ pathway and Rad52 from the HRR pathway was planned. We have developed and introduced a reliable immunofluorescence staining protocol for the detection of radiation-induced DNA damage response with antibodies specific for repair factors from NHEJ and HRR pathways and observed radiation-induced foci (RIF). The proposed methodology can be used for investigating repair protein that is highly activated in the case of neutron-mixed beam radiation, thereby indicating the dominance of the repair pathway.

Radiation-induced DNA damage response activated by neutron mixed-beam used in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) has not been fully established. This protocol provides a step-by-step procedure to detect radiation-induced foci (RIF) of repair proteins by immunofluorescence staining in human colon cancer cell lines after irradiation with the neutron-mixed beam.

The purpose of the manuscript is to provide a step-by-step protocol for performing immunofluorescence microscopy to study the radiation-induced DNA damage ...