Name: identification of virulence markers of mycobacterium abscessus for intracellular replication in phagocytes
Uploaded: 2018-09-27T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of Virulence Markers of Mycobacterium abscessus for Intracellular Replication in Phagocytes at JoVE.com

We greatly acknowledge Pr. E.J. Rubin (Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA) for the precious gift of the mutant library, and Dr. Ben Marshall (Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK) for the corrections of the manuscript. We greatly acknowledge the French Patient Association for Cystic Fibrosis "Vaincre la Mucoviscidose" and "L'Association Gregory Lemarchal" for their financial support (RF20150501377). We also thank the National Agency for Research (ANR program DIMIVYR (ANR-13-BSV3-0007-01)), and the R&#233;gion Ile-de-France (Domaine d'Int&#233;r&#234;t Majeur Maladies Infectieuses et Emergentes) for funding the postdoctoral fellowship to V.L-M. L. L. is a doctoral fellow from the "Minist&#232;re de L'Enseignement Sup&#233;rieur et de la Recherche".

1. Library Screening
<ol>
	<li>Construction of the Tn mutant library
	<ol>
		<li>Obtain a transposon library. 
		NOTE: For this experiment, a transposon mutant library was obtained from E.J. Rubin, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, USA. The library was constructed from a smooth clinical strain (43S) of the M. abscessus complex (M. abscessus subsp. massiliense) with a phagemid introduced into M. abscessus allowing the random insertion of a single ...

<ol>
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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+of+Mycobacterium+avium+with+environmental+amoebae+enhances+virulence.">Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence.</a> Infection and Immunity. 65 (9), (1997).</li><li>Stamm, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mycobacterium+marinum+escapes+from+phagosomes+and+is+propelled+by+actin-based+motility.">Mycobacterium marinum escapes from phagosomes and is propelled by actin-based motility.</a> Journal of Experimental Medicine. 198 (9), 1361-1368 (2003).</li><li>Groschel, M. 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S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recombinant+BCG+exporting+ESAT-6+confers+enhanced+protection+against+tuberculosis.">Recombinant BCG exporting ESAT-6 confers enhanced protection against tuberculosis.</a> Nature Medicine. 9 (5), 533-539 (2003).</li><li>Hsu, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+primary+mechanism+of+attenuation+of+bacillus+Calmette-Guerin+is+a+loss+of+secreted+lytic+function+required+for+invasion+of+lung+interstitial+tissue.">The primary mechanism of attenuation of bacillus Calmette-Guerin is a loss of secreted lytic function required for invasion of lung interstitial tissue.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (21), 12420-12425 (2003).</li><li>Smith, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+pore+formation+in+host+cell+membranes+by+ESX-1-secreted+ESAT-6+and+its+role+in+Mycobacterium+marinum+escape+from+the+vacuole.">Evidence for pore formation in host cell membranes by ESX-1-secreted ESAT-6 and its role in Mycobacterium marinum escape from the vacuole.</a> Infection and Immunity. 76 (12), 5478-5487 (2008).</li><li>Schnappinger, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptional+Adaptation+of+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis.+within+Macrophages.">Transcriptional Adaptation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. within Macrophages.</a> Journal of Experimental Medicine. 198 (5), 693-704 (2003).</li><li>Fontan, P., Aris, V., Ghanny, S., Soteropoulos, P., Smith, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+Transcriptional+Profile+of+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+during+THP-1+Human+Macrophage+Infection.">Global Transcriptional Profile of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during THP-1 Human Macrophage Infection.</a> Infection and Immunity. 76 (2), 717-725 (2008).</li><li>Miranda-CasoLuengo, A. 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The behavior of M. abscessus is much more similar to the behavior of pathogenic SGM such as M. tuberculosis than any other mycobacteria belonging to RGM2. The key element in the pathogenicity of SGM is their ability to survive or even multiply within antigen-presenting cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells.
M. abscessus has acquired certain genomic advantages as shown by the total sequence of its genome14 in or...

The genus Mycobacterium includes species ranging from harmless saprophytic organisms to major human pathogens. Well-known pathogenic species such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium marinum and Mycobacterium ulcerans belong to the subgroup of slow-growing mycobacteria (SGM). In contrast, the subgroup of rapid-growing mycobacteria (RGM) is characterized by their ability to form visible colonies in less than 7 days on agar medium. The RGM group comprises more than 180 species, mainly non-pathogenic saprophytic mycobacteria. Studies on RGM interactions with their hosts have mainly focused on Mycobacterium smegmatis and demonstrate that these mycobacteria are rapidly eliminated by the bactericidal action of macrophages.
Mycobacterium abscessus is one of the rare RGM that are pathogenic to humans and is responsible for a wide range of infections ranging from the skin and soft tissue infections to the pulmonary and disseminated infections. M. abscessus is considered, along with Mycobacterium avium, to be the main mycobacterial pathogen in cystic fibrosis patients1.
Various studies performed on M. abscessus indicate that this mycobacterium behaves like an intracellular pathogen, capable of surviving the bactericidal response of macrophages and fibroblasts in the lungs and skin, which is not usually observed in RGM2,3,4. M. abscessus genome analysis has identified metabolic pathways typically found in environmental microorganisms in contact with the soil, plants and aquatic environments, where free amoebae are often present5. They have also demonstrated that M. abscessus is endowed with several virulence genes not found in the saprophytic and non-pathogenic RGM, probably acquired by the horizontal gene transfer in a niche favorable to genetic exchange that might gather various amoeba resistant bacteria.
Experimentally, one of the first striking results was the observation of intracellular growth of M. abscessus in macrophages as well as for M. tuberculosis6. M. abscessus also resists the acidification of the phagosome, apoptosis and autophagy, three essential mechanisms of the cellular resistance to the infection2. It has even been shown that M. abscessus is able to establish an immediate communication between the phagosome and the cytosol, a more nutrient-rich environment that might favor bacterial multiplication2. Very little is known about the genomic advantages that M. abscessus possesses or has acquired to allow survival in an intracellular environment. Amoeba coculture is an efficient method that allowed the isolation of many new amoeba resistant bacteria as Mycobacterium massiliense7,8. An ability to multiply within amoebae was observed, in a model of aerosolization of M. abscessus in mice, which can confer an increased virulence to M. abscessus4. One hypothesis is that M. abscessus had developed genetic traits encountered within this environment to survive in phagocytic cells, which are different from other non-pathogenic RGM. These acquisitions might favor the ability to spread and its virulence in the human host.
This report describes tools and methods to highlight the genomic advantages conferred to M. abscessus to survive in the amoebae environment. For this purpose, the screening of M. abscessus transposon mutants is first described, on the Acanthamoeba castellanii type strain, which allows the identification of mutant&#39;s defective for intracellular growth. A second screening in macrophages is also reported, to confirm if this defect persists in the human host. Secondly, to understand which mechanisms are harnessed in M. abscessus to adapt to life in phagocytic cells and increase its virulence in the animal host, a method specifically adapted for M. abscessus was developed, after co-culture in the presence of amoebae that allowed the extraction of total RNA from intra-amoebal bacteria. As a consequence, a comprehensive view of M. abscessus genes that are required for an intracellular life was developed.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:211px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">24-well plates</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td>11874235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">96-well plates</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">10687551</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;">Beadbeater&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Bertin</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Precellys 24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:341px;">Bioanalyzer</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Agilent</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:341px;">Genepulser Xcell</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biorad</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;">Nanodrop spectrophotometer 2000</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;">QuBit fluorometer</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Q33226</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">zirconium beads/silica beads</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biospec products</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">11079101Z</td>
			<td>Beads</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:341px;">Name of reagent/cells</td>
			<td style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Acanthamoeba&#160;castellanii&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">30010</td>
			<td>strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Amikacin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Mylan</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">150927-A</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">B-mercaptoethanol&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">M6250</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">C1016</td>
			<td>&#62;93% granular anhydrous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Chloroform&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Fluka</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">25666</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ClaI enzyme</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">R0197S</td>
			<td>enzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Columbia agar&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biomerieux</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">43041</td>
			<td>90 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">D-Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">G8270&#160;</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">DMEM&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">11500596</td>
			<td>medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DNase and RNase free water&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">10977-035</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">E.&#160;coli electrocompetent&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">18265017</td>
			<td>bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">E4884</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Escherichia coli&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Clinical isolate</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">personal stock</td>
			<td>bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fe(NH4)2(SO4)-6H20&#160;</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">15505-40</td>
			<td>sulfate solution 4% aqueous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fetal Calf Serum</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">10270</td>
			<td>serum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">G5516</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Guanidium thiocyanate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Euromedex</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">EU0046-D</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Isopropanol&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">I9516</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">J774.2 macrophages</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">J774.2</td>
			<td>Strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">kanamycin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>60615</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">KH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">P0662</td>
			<td>Monobasic, anhydrous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LB liquid medium&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">12795-027</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Lysozyme</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Roche</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">10837059001</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>Labosi</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">M275</td>
			<td>pur</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Microbank TM (cryotubes with beads)</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Pro-Lab Diagnostic</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">PL.170/M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Middlebrook 7H11 medium</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M0428</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Middlebrook 7H9 medium</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">11753473</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">M&#252;ller-Hinton agar</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biorad</td>
			<td>3563901</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">N-Lauryl-sarcosine</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Merck</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">S37700 416</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Na2HPO4-7H2O</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">S9390</td>
			<td>98-102%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phenol/chloroforme&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">77617</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Proteinase K</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">EO0491</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">proteose peptone</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">211684</td>
			<td>enzymatic digest of animal tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">pUC19 plasmid</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">54357</td>
			<td>plasmid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SDS&#160; 20%</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Biorad</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">1610418</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium citrate</td>
			<td>Calbiochem</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">567446</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thiourea</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">88810</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Tris</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">154563</td>
			<td>powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trizol&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td>12044977</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tween 80</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">P1754&#160;</td>
			<td>solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Yeast extract&#160;</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">212750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:341px;">Kit</td>
			<td style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">AMBION DNase kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td>10792877</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DNA Agilent Chip</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Agilent</td>
			<td>5067-1504</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">K0503</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PureLink PCR Purification kit</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">K310001</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Quant-It&#34; assays kit</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Q33140/Q32884</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">T4 DNA ligase&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Y90001</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">TruSeq Stranded RNA LT prep kit</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Illumina</td>
			<td>15032611</td>
			<td>kit</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

identification of virulence markers of mycobacterium abscessus for intracellular replication in phagocytes

What differentiates Mycobacterium abscessus from other saprophytic mycobacteria is the ability to resist phagocytosis by human macrophages and the ability to multiply inside such cells. These virulence traits render M. abscessus pathogenic, especially in vulnerable hosts with underlying structural lung disease, such as cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis or tuberculosis. How patients become infected with M. abscessus remains unclear. Unlike many mycobacteria, M. abscessus is not found in the environment but might reside inside amoebae, environmental phagocytes that represent a potential reservoir for M. abscessus. Indeed, M. abscessus is resistant to amoebal phagocytosis and the intra-amoeba life seems to increase M. abscessus virulence in an experimental model of infection. However, little is known about M. abscessus virulence in itself. To decipher the genes conferring an advantage to M. abscessus intracellular life, a screening of a M. abscessus transposon mutant library was developed. In parallel, a method of RNA extraction from intracellular Mycobacteria after co-culture with amoebae was developed. This method was validated and allowed the sequencing of whole M. abscessus transcriptomes inside the cells; providing, for the first time, a global view on M. abscessus adaptation to intracellular life. Both approaches give us an insight into M. abscessus virulence factors that enable M. abscessus to colonize the airways in humans.

M. abscessus has the ability to resist and escape the bactericidal responses of macrophages and environmental protozoa such as amoebae. M. abscessus expresses virulence factors when grown in contact with amoebae, which makes it more virulent in mice4. The first objective of these methods was to identify the genes present in M. abscessus allowing its survival and multiplication within amoebae.
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of Virulence Markers of Mycobacterium abscessus for Intracellular Replication in Phagocytes at JoVE.com

Identification of Virulence Markers of Mycobacterium abscessus for Intracellular Replication in Phagocytes

Here, we present two protocols to study Phagocyte-Mycobacterium abscessus interactions: the screening of a transposon mutant library for bacterial intracellular deficiency and the determination of bacterial intracellular transcriptome from RNA sequencing. Both approaches provide insight into the genomic advantages and transcriptomic adaptations enhancing intracellular bacteria fitness.

Identification of Virulence Markers of Mycobacterium abscessus for Intracellular Replication in Phagocytes

What differentiates Mycobacterium abscessus from other saprophytic mycobacteria is the ability to resist phagocytosis by human macrophages and the ability ...

Research

JoVE Journal

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Deciphering and Imaging Pathogenesis and Cording of Mycobacterium abscessus in Zebrafish Embryos

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System for Efficacy and Cytotoxicity Screening of Inhibitors Targeting Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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Quantification of Intracellular Growth Inside Macrophages is a Fast and Reliable Method for Assessing the Virulence of Leishmania Parasites

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