This study was supported by the Merit Review Award # B1495-R (to Jeffrey R. Capadona) and the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientist and Engineers (PECASE) (to Jeffrey R. Capadona) from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Rehabilitation Research and Development Service. Additionally, this work was supported in part by the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs through the Peer Reviewed Medical Research Program under Award No. W81XWH-15-1-0608. The authors acknowledge SOURCE for its summer research funding support. The contents do not represent the views of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs or the United States Government. The authors would like to thank Hiroyuki Arakawa in the CWRU Rodent Behavior Core for his guidance in designing and testing rodent behavioral protocols. The authors would also like to thank James Drake and Kevin Talbot from the CWRU Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering for their help in designing and manufacturing the rodent ladder test.

All procedures and animal care practices were approved by and performed in accordance with the Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. The behavioral testing protocol closely follows previously published work12,13.
1. Behavioral Testing: Filming the Tasks
NOTE: Here, the animals were tested for 8 weeks to detect any chronic behavioral changes. The study duration is dependent on the application/injury/disease model used for the study.
<ol>
	<li>Open field grid testing 
	NOTE: The grid test has a 1 m2 area with 40 cm walls and was built in-house. The bottom is partitioned into nine squares via brightly colored tape (Figure 1A). For the use of the automated BVAS, it is important that the color of the line and the grid contrast with the rat. Here, white Sprague Dawley rats were used; thus, the grid background was painted black, and the lines were created with bright pink tape.
	<ol>
		<li>Test the animals 2x per week for all tests including the week before beginning the study in order to create a baseline score for use in later calculations.</li>
		<li>Clean all the testing equipment with a chlorine dioxide-based sterilant at the beginning of each testing session and between each animal.</li>
		<li>Bring the animals to the room for testing and allow them to adjust to the room for 20 min prior to starting the trials.</li>
		<li>Begin filming and place the animal in the center of the grid, facing away from the researcher, to begin the grid test.</li>
		<li>Allow the animal to run freely for 3 min while being video recorded from above.</li>
		<li>Stop filming when the 3 min time period has ended and return the animal to its home cage. Clean the grid with a chlorine dioxide-based sterilant, taking care to fully dry the surfaces before testing. Test each animal 1x per session.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ladder testing 
	NOTE: The ladder test was built in-house and consists of two acrylic side walls, each 1 m in length, connected by 3 mm diameter rungs spaced at 2 cm intervals (Figure 2). The animals require a week of ladder training before beginning the official testing. There is no difference between the training and the testing protocol. Note that the training does not need to be filmed.
	<ol>
		<li>For the use with the BVAS, cover the wall behind the ladder with a black poster board and delineate the level of the rungs, start, and finish lines with bright tape to create a contrast with the white rats.</li>
		<li>Test the animals 2x per week for all tests including the week before beginning the study to create a baseline score for use in later calculations.</li>
		<li>Clean all the testing equipment with a chlorine dioxide-based sterilant at the beginning of each testing session and between each animal.</li>
		<li>Bring the animals to the room for testing and allow them to adjust to the room for 20 min prior to starting the trials.</li>
		<li>Place the animal in a clean temporary cage before the ladder testing. 
		NOTE: A temporary cage is a short-term cage to hold the animal while the animal&#39;s home cage is used at the end of the ladder. There is no age bias as all animals used in the study are the same age and complete testing over the same time period. The control used here is a na&#239;ve animal having never received surgery.</li>
		<li>Set the ladder apparatus up to span two cages; the start cage is a clean cage, and the end cage is the animal&#39;s living cage, an incentive to complete the run.</li>
		<li>Place the camera on a tripod, centered on the length of the ladder. Extend the tripod so the lens of the camera is at the height of the ladder rungs. Position the camera so that the rungs are exactly aligned with the lens as this is important for the slip detection algorithm in the BVAS code.</li>
		<li>Start the video recording and allow the rat to begin the run by holding their front paws over the first rung of the ladder. Allow the animal to move onto the ladder unassisted.</li>
		<li>Allow the animal to move from the start line to the finish line at their own pace while filming. End the video recording and remove the animal from the ladder once the animal has completed the run.</li>
		<li>Consider the run a failed run if the animal turns around or remains stagnant for 20 s. End the video recording and remove the animal from the ladder if the animal fails the run. Assign a penalty score for failed runs which is equivalent to the slowest time recorded during the pre-surgery baseline testing.</li>
		<li>Ensure that each animal completes 5 runs per testing day and give them a 1 min rest period between each trial. 
		NOTE: In this study, the animals were tested 2x per week for 8 weeks. However, the timeframe is up to the discretion of the researcher.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. File Storage and Naming
NOTE: The BVAS code uses specifically designated video file and folder naming conventions so that videos may be reliably parsed and analyzed properly. Different naming conventions are currently not supported. After the completion of a testing session, the video file is saved in the default location under a default name.
<ol>
	<li>Individual video naming
	<ol>
		<li>Name each video with the animal&#39;s designation for all grid testing videos.</li>
		<li>Collect 5 ladder videos per testing session for each animal. Select all five videos and rename the first video, using the animal&#39;s designation. For example, if the animal&#39;s name is &#34;C1NS&#34;, the files are named &#34;C1NS (1)&#34;, &#34;C1NS (2)&#34;, &#34;C1NS (3)&#34;, etc.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Storage folder naming
	<ol>
		<li>Take the videos now named after each animal and place the files in their own storage folder. Name this folder using the following convention: &#34;TestingWeek_TestMode_MM_DD_YY&#34;. 
		NOTE: For example, if this folder holds the first week of grid videos and was filmed on January 1st, 2018, the folder holding these videos is named &#34;Week1_GridTest_01_01_18&#34;.</li>
		<li>Place this specifically named folder in another folder that will denote the larger study that this set of experiments belongs to. 
		NOTE: There are no naming requirements for the folder tree system to keep studies and testing modes organized. The only folder the system selects is the folder holding videos named in step 2.2.1.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Spreadsheet file creation
	<ol>
		<li>Using an outside spreadsheet program (see the Table of Materials), create a new empty spreadsheet file to store the data for each study and testing mode. 
		NOTE: There are no naming or storage location requirements for this file. Each study requires two spreadsheet files for use with the system, one for grid testing and one for ladder testing. Leave these files empty for now.</li>
		<li>Check to ensure these spreadsheet files are not open on any computers while the BVAS is running. 
		NOTE: If the BVAS attempts to open a spreadsheet file that is already open, this will result in an error.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. System Installation
NOTE: The BVAS was built and tested on PC operating systems and leverages Runtime components from simple and readily available coding software. Other system configurations are currently not supported.
<ol>
	<li>Installing latest BVAS version
	<ol>
		<li>Run the installer by double-clicking on the installer icon labeled &#39;BVASX.XXinstaller&#39;. &#34;X.XX&#34; is the current version number, currently &#39;BVAS3.30installer&#39;. 
		NOTE: This is open source software. Contact the corresponding author for the most recent version.</li>
		<li>Follow the on-screen instructions to install the BVAS. 
		NOTE: The installer will check the system for the correct version of the software (e.g., MATLAB Runtime) and if it is not found, it will install the software from the internet.</li>
		<li>Once installed, launch the program by clicking the &#39;BVAS.exe&#39; file.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. System Use
<ol>
	<li>Opening the program
	<ol>
		<li>Double-click on the BVAS program icon to bring up the BVAS main menu which allows the following options: &#39;Grid Analysis&#39;, &#39;Ladder Analysis&#39;, &#39;Ladder Review&#39;, or &#39;Quit&#39;. 
		NOTE: There is also a drop-down menu located in the top left corner labeled &#39;Email Settings&#39; (Figure 3A).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Email settings
	<ol>
		<li>Click on the &#39;Email Settings&#39; drop-down menu and first select &#39;Change email destination&#39;.</li>
		<li>Enter a preferred email address to receive updates on the analysis and select &#39;OK&#39;. Select &#39;Cancel&#39; to not change the email currently saved.</li>
		<li>Click the &#39;Send Test Email&#39; button to send a test email to the email currently saved in the system. Close the &#39;Email Sent!&#39; window pop-up signifying the test&#39;s completion.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Open Field Grid Test Analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Select &#39;Grid Analysis&#39; from the top menu screen.</li>
		<li>Ensure the toggle button labeled &#39;Single Video/Whole Session/Plot Data&#39; is displaying Whole Session to complete the analysis on a whole set of testing session videos.</li>
		<li>Utilize the &#39;&#8230;&#39; button next to the upper input box to browse the file system to find the file of videos to analyze. Select the folder labeled in the style discussed in step 2.2.1.</li>
		<li>Utilize the &#8230; button next to the lower input box to browse the file system to select the spreadsheet file in which to store the data. 
		NOTE: Note that, as well as outputting the data to a spreadsheet file, the complete path data for each video is stored in a data file (.mat) in the same directory that holds the videos chosen in step 4.3.3.</li>
		<li>Ensure the toggle button mentioned in step 4.3.2 is set to &#39;Single Video&#39; to complete the analysis on a single video.</li>
		<li>Utilize the &#8230; button next to the upper input box to browse the file system to find the file of the video to analyze.</li>
		<li>Utilize the &#8230; button next to the lower input box to browse the file system to select a directory to save the data file (.mat) that results from the single video analysis. 
		NOTE: The data file will be named after the video, which is named after the animal.</li>
		<li>Select &#39;Output Data&#39; from the toggle mentioned in step 4.3.2. to output the data from a previously analyzed grid video. Examples of this plotted data are shown in Figures 1B and 1C.</li>
		<li>Utilize the &#8230; button next to the upper input box to browse the file system to select a previously created grid video data file. Select &#39;Go!&#39; to create the plot and data figure. 
		NOTE: This function also creates a text file, named the same and located in the same directory as the data file, which has the animal&#39;s run data in it.</li>
		<li>Once both necessary files have been located, select &#39;Go!&#39; to begin the video analysis. Note that the &#39;Return&#39; button will reopen the top menu and the &#39;Quit&#39; button will close the program completely. Choose the &#39;Debug Display&#39;&#160;toggle to show a visual representation of the tracking algorithm (Figures 3C and 3D).</li>
		<li>Select &#39;Go!&#39; to start the analysis process. Examine the images of each video on the reviewer screen. Use the &#39;Next&#39; and &#39;Previous&#39; page buttons if there are more than five videos.</li>
		<li>To bring up a manual selection menu, select the &#39;Edit&#39; button if there are no green lines or the green line does not appear to be in the correct square around the testing area. To edit the corners, select the &#39;Edit Corners&#39; button. 
		NOTE: The &#39;Next Frame&#39; button changes the representative image to the next frame of the video in question. Select the &#39;Next Frame&#39; button if the frame given automatically is obstructed or out of focus.</li>
		<li>Follow the instructions to the right of the representative image to select the testing area and hit &#39;Enter&#39; to complete the selection process. 
		NOTE: The selected green lines will now be shown on the representative image.</li>
		<li>Select &#39;Done&#39; to save the selection and return to the reviewer screen.</li>
		<li>Select the center &#39;Done&#39; button to start the complete analysis process once the grid area for each video is selected correctly. Allow the program to run and, upon completion, a success prompt will appear. 
		NOTE: The full analysis of a session of videos can take some time, approximately 10 min per animal.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ladder test analysis 
	NOTE: The protocol for the initial ladder test analysis is very similar to the protocol outlined in steps 4.3.10&#8211;4.3.15. The notable differences prior to those steps are as follows:
	<ol>
		<li>Select &#39;Ladder Analysis&#39; from the top menu to open the ladder analysis menu.</li>
		<li>View the two options in the toggle, &#39;Single Video&#39; and &#39;Whole Session&#39; (Figure 3B).</li>
		<li>With &#39;Whole Session&#39;, select the upper input &#8230; button to select the folder with ladder videos named in step 2.2.1.Select the lower &#8230; button to select a directory to save a folder with data from the ladder videos to review later.</li>
		<li>If &#39;Single Video&#39; is selected, select a single video file with the upper &#8230; button and a location the same as in step 4.4.3.</li>
		<li>Select &#39;Go!&#39; to start the analysis process and bring up the ladder test area reviewer screen.</li>
		<li>Follow steps 4.3.10&#8211;4.3.15 the same way for the ladder as for the grid. Allow the program to run and, upon completion, a success prompt will appear. 
		NOTE: If something goes wrong during the analysis, an email is sent to the email address entered in step 4.2.2. Upon completion of an analysis of any kind, a completion email is sent to the same email address.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ladder image review 
	NOTE: The following protocol is to review previously analyzed ladder videos to confirm any failures and paw slips. Note, spreadsheet files for a ladder crossing are not generated to view until &#39;Ladder Image Review&#39; (steps 4.5.1&#8211;4.5.5) is completed.
	<ol>
		<li>From the top menu, select &#39;Ladder Image Review&#39;. This brings up the Ladder Review file select screen.</li>
		<li>Select the top &#8230; button to select the folder of the data files. 
		NOTE: The files are saved in the location chosen in step 4.4.2 and are named in the following format: &#34;M1_D1_Y1 Ladder Video Session HH_MM M2_D2_YYYY&#34;. M1, D1, and Y1 are the date of the session being analyzed. &#34;Ladder Video Session&#34; will read &#34;Single Video Analysis&#34; if only a single video was analyzed. HH_MM and M2_D2_YYYY are the time and date that the review session was started.</li>
		<li>Select the bottom &#8230; to select the spreadsheet file created for the study.</li>
		<li>Select &#39;Go!&#39; to start the manual review process.</li>
		<li>View the automatically opened ladder data reviewer menu. If a slip is detected, use the &#39;Next Frame&#39; and &#39;Last Frame&#39; buttons to check any consecutively recorded frames if available.</li>
		<li>Utilize the slip toggle to denote what foot of the rat has slipped. Leave the toggle on &#39;No Slip&#39; if the detection is a false positive. Click &#39;Save/Continue&#39; to move on to the next detection (Figure 2A).</li>
		<li>In the case of failure, use the toggle to denote whether the failure is due to reversal (where the rat turned around during the run) or stagnation (where the rat failed to complete the run in a timely manner).</li>
		<li>Click &#39;Save/Continue&#39; to move on to the next detection. On the last detection, click &#39;Save/Continue&#39; to complete the analysis and save the data to the spreadsheet file chosen earlier. Dismiss the completion notice. 
		NOTE: After the review is completed, the folder that was reviewed is renamed &#34;REVIEWED M1_D1_Y1 Ladder Video Session HH_MM M2_D2_YYYY&#34;.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Output Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Grid spreadsheet file
	<ol>
		<li>Locate the created data in the spreadsheet file from each grid video. 
		NOTE: The columns are left to right as follows: animal name, date of test, week of study number, total distance traveled, total time stopped, maximum velocity achieved, right turns, left turns, and grid line crosses (Figure 1D).</li>
		<li>Use these metrics to quantify the gross motor performance and create comparison plots between animals and time points.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ladder spreadsheet file
	<ol>
		<li>Locate the created data in the spreadsheet file from each ladder video following the failure and paw slip review. 
		NOTE: The columns are left to right as follows: animal name, run number 1&#8211;5, week of study number, date of test, run type (either success or failure), time of run for successes, percent completion, paw slips on each paw, and failure mode. The time column is blank for a failure and the failure mode column will read either reversal or stagnation (Figure 2B).</li>
		<li>Use these metrics to quantify the fine motor performance and create comparison plots between animals and time points.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The most critical portion of the protocol to ensure a strong analysis is the consistent filming. If the videos are well lit and filmed at the correct position as discussed in the first section of the protocol, the system will be able to do a precise analysis. As with any image-processing problem, the work done in preprocessing will make the post-processing more accurate and simple. As such, making sure that the apparatus and animals are well-lit during the testing and any shadows or other motion in the frame is kept to a...

There are many established methods to assess both functional and behavioral motor and cognitive impairments1,2,3. Some of the more commonly employed methods include testing fine motor function via paw placement, stepping, and limb coordination on a ladder test4, testing gross motor function and stress behavior via the open field grid test5,6, and testing for fear, depression, and despair via the forced swim test7,8 or rotor rod9. However, many of these methods rely on human researchers to &#34;score&#34; the animal or to judge its performance subjectively. The need for a subjective human assessment can slow the generation and analysis of the data, as well as present the opportunity for an intentional or unintentional influence of research bias in the study10. Further, subjective assessment of the data also presents the risk of inaccurate data representation, be it through forgetfulness, poor motivation, improper training, or negligence11.
We have recently reported the use of both an open field grid test and a ladder test in rats implanted with intracortical microelectrodes12,13. Due to the novelty of the findings in those studies, we immediately began employing those and additional functional testing in many ongoing studies in the laboratory. In anticipation of unintentional human-generated variability resulting from an increase in the number of subjective evaluators, and to improve the analysis throughput, we set out to create an automated, computer-assisted program to score behavioral testing, and greatly limit the potential for error.
Here, we report on the development of the BVAS. The BVAS uses computer analysis to score an open field grid test and a ladder test as metrics of gross and fine motor function, respectively. The results can be used to elucidate possible motor function deficits caused by injury or disease, regardless of the injury or disease model. The analysis codes can be adapted to account for changes in behavioral testing equipment or to score various metrics of motor function. Therefore, the BVAS can be implemented in many applications, beyond our intended use or the intended use of those currently employed by other laboratories.
Note that the open field grid and ladder tests require video recording. Therefore, each test will require a video camera [1080 p, minimum 15 frames per second (fps)], a laptop, and a room to store the video data. For both tests, place the camera in a centered position, allowing for the whole apparatus to be seen on the frame. Anchor the camera on a tripod or scaffolding so that it does not move during the testing. Keep the edges of the video frame as close to parallel with the edges of the testing apparatus as possible. Be sure the same personnel complete all testing and the room is well-lit with a temperature-controlled system. Use the same room for all animals throughout the course of the testing, with minimal changes to the room. Cereals or banana chips make good rewards to encourage the animals to complete the behavior tests.

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		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Sprague Dawley rats, male, 201-225g</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Charles River</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">CD</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Webcam HD Pro c920</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Logitec</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">960-000764</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Excel</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Microsoft</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Matalb 2017a, Computer Vision System Toolbox</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Mathworks</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Open field grid test</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Made in-house at Case Western Reserve University</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Ladder test</td>
			<td style="width:197px;">Made in-house at Case Western Reserve University</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:267px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a novel single animal motor function tracking system using simple, readily available software

We have recently demonstrated that implanting intracortical microelectrodes in the motor corteces of rats&#160;results in immediate and lasting motor deficits. Motor impairments were manually quantified through an open field grid test to measure the gross motor function and through a ladder test to measure the fine motor function. Here, we discuss a technique for the automated quantification of the video-recorded tests using our custom Capadona Behavioral Video Analysis System: Grid and Ladder Test, or BVAS. Leveraging simple and readily available coding software (see the Table of Materials), this program allows for the tracking of a single animal on both the open field grid and the ladder tests. In open field grid tracking, the code thresholds the video for intensity, tracks the position of the rat over the 3 min duration of the grid test, and analyzes the path. It then computes and returns measurements for the total distance traveled, the maximum velocity achieved, the number of left- and right-handed turns, and the total number of grid lines crossed by the rat. In ladder tracking, the code again thresholds the video for intensity, tracks the movement of the rat across the ladder, and returns calculated measurements including the time it took the rat to cross the ladder, the number of paw slips occurring below the plane of the ladder rungs, and the incidence of failures due to stagnation or reversals. We envision that the BVAS developed here can be employed for the analysis of motor function in a variety of applications, including many injury or disease models.

Following the methods presented here, rats completed the open field grid and ladder tests 2x per week. The data were analyzed both by using BVAS and manually with a stop-watch by trained and novice reviewers. The results presented are an average of the raw weekly scores from a single non-implanted control animal over an 8 week study, where week &#34;0&#34; corresponds to the baseline testing. Note there was no testing during week 1 as this was a rest week for the surgery animals. Because ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel Single Animal Motor Function Tracking System Using Simple, Readily Available Software at JoVE.com

A Novel Single Animal Motor Function Tracking System Using Simple, Readily Available Software

The current study aimed to automate the quantification of motor deficits in rats. The initial evaluation model assesses motor loss resulting from an intracortical microelectrode implantation in the motor cortex. We report on the development and use of a tracking algorithm using easily adaptable, simple, and readily available coding software.

We have recently demonstrated that implanting intracortical microelectrodes in the motor corteces of rats&#160;results in immediate and lasting motor ...

a-novel-single-animal-motor-function-tracking-system-using-simple

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

6.5K Views.  Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The current study aimed to automate the quantification of motor deficits in rats. The initial evaluation model assesses motor loss resulting from an intracortical microelectrode implantation in the motor cortex. We report on the development and use of a tracking algorithm using easily adaptable, simple, and readily available coding software.

Video: A Novel Single Animal Motor Function Tracking System Using Simple, Readily Available Software

Mouse Short- and Long-term Locomotor Activity Analyzed by Video Tracking Software

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software (VTS) have allowed it to be coupled to LMA testing, dramatically improving specificity and sensitivity when compared to the line crossings method with manual scoring. In addition, VTS enables high-throughput experimentation. While similar to automated video tracking used for the open field test (OFT), LMA testing is unique in that it allows mice to remain in their home cage and does not utilize the anxiogenic stimulus of bright lighting during the active phase of the light-dark cycle. Traditionally, LMA has been used for short periods of time (mins), while longer movement studies (hrs-days) have often used implanted transmitters and biotelemetry. With the option of real-time tracking, long-, like short-term LMA testing, can now be conducted using videography. Long-term LMA testing requires a specialized, but easily constructed, cage so that food and water (which is usually positioned on the cage top) does not obstruct videography. Importantly, videography and VTS allows for the quantification of parameters, such as path of mouse movement, that are difficult or unfeasible to measure with line crossing and/or biotelemetry. In sum, LMA testing coupled to VTS affords a more complete description of mouse movement and the ability to examine locomotion over an extended period of time.

Locomotor activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice. Coupling of video tracking software (VTS) and LMA allows for the improvement of specificity and sensitivity, especially when compared with the manual, line crossing method of LMA analysis. Additionally VTS allows long-term tracking of mouse LMA.

Locomotor  activity (LMA) is a simple and easily performed measurement of behavior in mice  and other rodents. Improvements in video tracking software ...

Inchworming: A Novel Motor Stereotypy in the BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J Mouse Model of Autism

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by decreased reciprocal social interaction, abnormal communication, and repetitive behaviors with restricted interest. As diagnosis is based on clinical criteria, any potentially relevant rodent models of this heterogeneous disorder should ideally recapitulate these diverse behavioral traits. The BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mouse is an established animal model of ASD, displaying repetitive behaviors such as increased grooming, as well as cognitive inflexibility. With respect to social interaction and interest, the juvenile play test has been employed in multiple rodent models of ASD. Here, we show that when BTBR mice are tested in a juvenile social interaction enclosure containing sawdust bedding, they display a repetitive synchronous digging motion. This repetitive motor behavior, referred to as &#34;inchworming,&#34; was named because of the stereotypic nature of the movements exhibited by the mice while moving horizontally across the floor. Inchworming mice must use their fore- and hind-limbs in synchrony to displace the bedding, performing a minimum of one inward and one outward motion. Although both BTBR and C56BL/6J (B6) mice exhibit this behavior, BTBR mice demonstrate a significantly higher duration and frequency of inchworming and a decreased latency to initiate inchworming when placed in a bedded enclosure. We conclude that this newly described behavior provides a measure of a repetitive motor stereotypy that can be easily measured in animal models of ASD.

Inchworming: A Novel Motor Stereotypy in the BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J Mouse Model of Autism

Inchworming is a highly repetitive synchronous digging motion displayed by BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mice when placed in a testing cage with sufficient sawdust bedding. The procedure is a modification of the juvenile social interaction protocol and is used here to assess repetitive motor stereotypies relevant to Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by decreased reciprocal social interaction, abnormal ...

Assessing Forelimb Function after Unilateral Cervical SCI using Novel Tasks: Limb Step-alternation, Postural Instability and Pasta Handling

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority of the spinal cord injuries in humans occur at the cervical levels. Therefore, developing cervical injury models and developing relevant and sensitive behavioral tests is of great importance. Here we describe the use of a newly developed forelimb step-alternation test after cervical spinal cord injury in rats. In addition, we describe two behavioral tests that have not been used after spinal cord injury: a postural instability test (PIT), and a pasta-handling test. All three behavioral tests are highly sensitive to injury and are easy to use. Therefore, we feel that these behavioral tests can be instrumental in investigating therapeutic strategies after cSCI.

Three new behavioral tests (forelimb step-alternation, postural instability test, pasta handling test) for evaluating forelimb function after cervical spinal cord injury in rodents are described.

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority ...

Study Motor Skill Learning by Single-pellet Reaching Tasks in Mice

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and retrieve food rewards positioned at a specific location, their motor performance (defined as accuracy and speed) improves progressively over time, and plateaus after persistent training. Once such reaching skill is mastered, its further maintenance does not require constant practice. Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task to study the acquisition and maintenance of skilled forelimb movements in mice. In this video, we first describe the behaviors of mice that are commonly encountered in this learning and memory paradigm, and then discuss how to categorize these behaviors and quantify the observed results. Combined with mouse genetics, this paradigm can be utilized as a behavioral platform to explore the anatomical underpinnings, physiological properties, and molecular mechanisms of learning and memory.

Persistent practice improves the precision of coordinated movements.&#160;Here we introduce a single-pellet reaching task, which is designed to assess the learning and memory of forelimb skill in mice.&#160;

Reaching for and retrieving objects require precise and coordinated motor movements in the forelimb. When mice are repeatedly trained to grasp and ...

Non-Invasive Electrical Brain Stimulation Montages for Modulation of Human Motor Function

Non-invasive electrical brain stimulation (NEBS) is used to modulate brain function and behavior, both for research and clinical purposes. In particular, NEBS can be applied transcranially either as direct current stimulation (tDCS) or alternating current stimulation (tACS). These stimulation types exert time-, dose- and in the case of tDCS polarity-specific effects on motor function and skill learning in healthy subjects. Lately, tDCS has been used to augment the therapy of motor disabilities in patients with stroke or movement disorders. This article provides a step-by-step protocol for targeting the primary motor cortex with tDCS and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), a specific form of tACS using an electrical current applied randomly within a pre-defined frequency range. The setup of two different stimulation montages is explained. In both montages the emitting electrode (the anode for tDCS) is placed on the primary motor cortex of interest. For unilateral motor cortex stimulation the receiving electrode is placed on the contralateral forehead while for bilateral motor cortex stimulation the receiving electrode is placed on the opposite primary motor cortex. The advantages and disadvantages of each montage for the modulation of cortical excitability and motor function including learning are discussed, as well as safety, tolerability and blinding aspects.

Non-invasive electrical brain stimulation can modulate cortical function and behavior, both for research and clinical purposes. This protocol describes different brain stimulation approaches for modulation of the human motor system.

Non-invasive electrical brain stimulation (NEBS) is used to modulate brain function and behavior, both for research and clinical purposes. In particular, ...

A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational methods, it is difficult to make a quantitative assessment of a child's visual problems. This limits accurate diagnostics in children under the age of 4 years and in children with intellectual disabilities. Here we describe a quantitative method that overcomes these problems. The method uses a remote eye tracker and a four choice preferential looking paradigm to measure eye movement responses to different visual stimuli. The child sits without head support in front of a monitor with integrated infrared cameras. In one of four monitor quadrants a visual stimulus is presented. Each stimulus has a specific visual modality with respect to the background, e.g., form, motion, contrast or color. From the reflexive eye movement responses to these specific visual modalities, output parameters such as reaction times, fixation accuracy and fixation duration are calculated to quantify a child's viewing behavior. With this approach, the quality of visual information processing can be assessed without the use of communication. By comparing results with reference values obtained in typically developing children from 0-12 years, the method provides a characterization of visual information processing in visually impaired children. The quantitative information provided by this method can be advantageous for the field of clinical visual assessment and rehabilitation in multiple ways. The parameter values provide a good basis to: (i) characterize early visual capacities and consequently to enable early interventions; (ii) compare risk groups and follow visual development over time; and (iii), construct an individual visual profile for each child.

A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational ...

Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. However, studying human locomotor learning can be challenging. During infancy and childhood, the neuromuscular system is quite immature, and it is unlikely that locomotor learning during early stages of development is governed by the same mechanisms as in adulthood. By the time humans reach maturity, they are so proficient at walking that it is difficult to come up with a sufficiently novel task to study de novo locomotor learning. The split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed, enables the study of both short- (i.e., immediate) and long-term (i.e., over minutes-days; a form of motor learning) gait modifications in response to a novel change in the walking environment. Individuals can easily be screened for previous exposure to the split-belt treadmill, thus ensuring that all experimental participants have no (or equivalent) prior experience. This paper describes a typical split-belt treadmill adaptation protocol that incorporates testing methods to quantify locomotor learning and generalization of this learning to other walking contexts. A discussion of important considerations for designing split-belt treadmill experiments follows, including factors like treadmill belt speeds, rest breaks, and distractors. Additionally, potential but understudied confounding variables (e.g., arm movements, prior experience) are considered in the discussion.

We describe a protocol for investigating human locomotor adaptation using the split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed. We specifically focus on a paradigm designed to test the generalization of adapted locomotor patterns to different walking contexts (e.g., gait speeds, walking environments).

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. ...

Control of Eating Behavior Using a Novel Feedback System

Subjects eat food from a plate that sits on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal and makes up a curve of food intake, meal duration and rate of eating modeled by a quadratic equation. The purpose of the method is to change eating behavior by providing visual feedback on the computer screen that the subject can adapt to because her/his own rate of eating appears on the screen during the meal. The data generated by the method is automatically analyzed and fitted to the quadratic equation using a custom made algorithm. The method has the advantage of recording eating behavior objectively and offers the possibility of changing eating behavior both in experiments and in clinical practice. A limitation may be that experimental subjects are affected by the method. The same limitation may be an advantage in clinical practice, as eating behavior is more easily stabilized by the method. A treatment that uses this method has normalized body weight and restored the health of several hundred patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders and has reduced the weight and improved the health of severely overweight patients.

Subjects eat food from a plate placed on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal. Feedback on the computer screen allows the subject to adapt her/his eating behavior to reference curves thus normalizing body weight.

Subjects eat food from a plate that sits on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal and makes up a curve ...

Elevated Plus Maze Test Combined with Video Tracking Software to Investigate the Anxiolytic Effect of Exogenous Ketogenic Supplements

The overall goal of this study is to describe the methodology of the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in combination with a video tracking software. The purpose of the method is to document the effect of various potential anxiolytic treatments on laboratory rodent models. The EPM test is based on the rodents&#39; proclivity toward protected, enclosed dark spaces and unconditioned fear of open spaces and heights, and their innate intense motivation to explore novel environments. The EPM test is a widely used behavioral test for investigating the anxiolytic or anxiogenic responses of rodents given drugs that are known to affect behavior. Observation demonstrating a decreased proportion of time spent on closed arms, an increased proportion of time spent on open arms, a reduced number of entries to closed arms, and an elevated number of entries to open arms measured by the EPM test may reflect reduced anxiety levels. Using this method, the effect of exogenous ketone supplements on anxiety-related behavior is tested in Sprague Dawley (SPD) rats. Exogenous ketone supplements are chronically fed to the rats for 83 days or subchronically and acutely orally gavaged, daily for 7 days, before conducting the EPM test. Behavioral data collection is performed using the SMART video tracking system by a blinded observer at the end of the treatments. The main findings indicate that the EPM test is an effective method to detect the ketone supplement-induced anxiolytic effect and can be considered a sensitive measure to assess changes in anxiety behavior associated with drug- or metabolic-based therapies.

Here, we present a protocol to investigate changes in the anxiety level of rodent animal models. The elevated plus maze (EPM) test, used together with a video tracking software, provides a reliable method to document the effect of various potential anxiolytic treatments in preclinical laboratory scenarios.

The overall goal of this study is to describe the methodology of the elevated plus maze (EPM) test in combination with a video tracking software. The ...

Simultaneous Eye Tracking and Single-Neuron Recordings in Human Epilepsy Patients

Intracranial recordings from patients with intractable epilepsy provide a unique opportunity to study the activity of individual human neurons during active behavior. An important tool for quantifying behavior is eye tracking, which is an indispensable tool for studying visual attention. However, eye tracking is challenging to use concurrently with invasive electrophysiology and this approach has consequently been little used. Here, we present a proven experimental protocol to conduct single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans. We describe how the systems are connected and the optimal settings to record neurons and eye movements. To illustrate the utility of this method, we summarize results that were made possible by this setup. This data shows how using eye tracking in a memory-guided visual search task allowed us to describe a new class of neurons called target neurons, whose response was reflective of top-down attention to the current search target. Lastly, we discuss the significance and solutions to potential problems of this setup. Together, our protocol and results suggest that single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans are an effective method to study human brain function. It provides a key missing link between animal neurophysiology and human cognitive neuroscience.

We describe a method to conduct single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans. We demonstrate the utility of this method and illustrate how we used this approach to obtain neurons in the human medial temporal lobe that encode targets of a visual search.

Intracranial recordings from patients with intractable epilepsy provide a unique opportunity to study the activity of individual human neurons during ...