Name: flow cytometric analysis of extracellular vesicles from cell-conditioned media
Uploaded: 2019-02-12T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Flow Cytometric Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from Cell-conditioned Media at JoVE.com

L.B. was supported by research grants of Helmut Horten Stiftung and Velux Stiftung, Zurich (Switzerland). G.V. was supported by research grants of Swiss National Science Foundation, the Cecilia-Augusta Foundation, Lugano, and the SHK Stiftung f&#252;r Herz- und Kreislaufkrankheiten (Switzerland)

1. Collection and Processing of Conditioned Media
<ol>
	<li>Coat 55 cm2 Petri dishes with 0.02% porcine skin gelatin in PBS.</li>
	<li>Plate CPC (8,000/cm2) in pre-coated dishes with 7 mL of Iscove&#39;s Modified Dulbecco&#39;s Medium (IMDM) supplemented with 20% FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum) and 1% Penicillin/Streptomycin (P/S). 
	NOTE: The term &#8220;CPC&#8221; refers to human explant derived cells that have been described elsewhere14. CM can be collecte...

<ol>
	<li>Barile, L., Vassalli, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exosomes:+Therapy+delivery+tools+and+biomarkers+of+diseases.">Exosomes: Therapy delivery tools and biomarkers of diseases.</a> Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics. , (2017).</li><li>Thery, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exosomes:+secreted+vesicles+and+intercellular+communications.">Exosomes: secreted vesicles and intercellular communications.</a> Molecular Biology Reports. 3, 15 (2011).</li><li>Yadav, D. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liquid+biopsy+in+pancreatic+cancer:+the+beginning+of+a+new+era.">Liquid biopsy in pancreatic cancer: the beginning of a new era.</a> Oncotarget. 9, 26900-26933 (2018).</li><li>Balbi, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=First+Characterization+of+Human+Amniotic+Fluid+Stem+Cell+Extracellular+Vesicles+as+a+Powerful+Paracrine+Tool+Endowed+with+Regenerative+Potential.">First Characterization of Human Amniotic Fluid Stem Cell Extracellular Vesicles as a Powerful Paracrine Tool Endowed with Regenerative Potential.</a> Stem Cells Translational Medicine. 6, 1340-1355 (2017).</li><li>Andriolo, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exosomes+From+Human+Cardiac+Progenitor+Cells+for+Therapeutic+Applications:+Development+of+a+GMP-Grade+Manufacturing+Method.">Exosomes From Human Cardiac Progenitor Cells for Therapeutic Applications: Development of a GMP-Grade Manufacturing Method.</a> Frontiers in Physiology. 9, (2018).</li><li>Lai, R. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exosome+secreted+by+MSC+reduces+myocardial+ischemia/reperfusion+injury.">Exosome secreted by MSC reduces myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.</a> Stem Cell Research. 4, (2009).</li><li>Doeppner, T. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+Vesicles+Improve+Post-Stroke+Neuroregeneration+and+Prevent+Postischemic+Immunosuppression.">Extracellular Vesicles Improve Post-Stroke Neuroregeneration and Prevent Postischemic Immunosuppression.</a> Stem Cells Translational Medicine. 4, 1131-1143 (2015).</li><li>Kordelas, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MSC-derived+exosomes:+a+novel+tool+to+treat+therapy-refractory+graft-versus-host+disease.">MSC-derived exosomes: a novel tool to treat therapy-refractory graft-versus-host disease.</a> Leukemia. 28, 970-973 (2014).</li><li>Barile, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+vesicles+from+human+cardiac+progenitor+cells+inhibit+cardiomyocyte+apoptosis+and+improve+cardiac+function+after+myocardial+infarction.">Extracellular vesicles from human cardiac progenitor cells inhibit cardiomyocyte apoptosis and improve cardiac function after myocardial infarction.</a> Cardiovascular Research. 103, 530-541 (2014).</li><li>Longatti, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+affinity+single-chain+variable+fragments+are+specific+and+versatile+targeting+motifs+for+extracellular+vesicles.">High affinity single-chain variable fragments are specific and versatile targeting motifs for extracellular vesicles.</a> Nanoscale. 10, 14230-14244 (2018).</li><li>Menck, K., Bleckmann, A., Schulz, M., Ries, L., Binder, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+Characterization+of+Microvesicles+from+Peripheral+Blood.">Isolation and Characterization of Microvesicles from Peripheral Blood.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. , (2017).</li><li>Inglis, H., Norris, P., Danesh, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Techniques+for+the+analysis+of+extracellular+vesicles+using+flow+cytometry.">Techniques for the analysis of extracellular vesicles using flow cytometry.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. , (2015).</li><li>Arakelyan, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+Virometry+to+Analyze+Antigenic+Spectra+of+Virions+and+Extracellular+Vesicles.">Flow Virometry to Analyze Antigenic Spectra of Virions and Extracellular Vesicles.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. , (2017).</li><li>Chimenti, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+expansion+of+adult+cardiac+stem/progenitor+cells+in+the+form+of+cardiospheres+from+human+cardiac+biopsies+and+murine+hearts.">Isolation and expansion of adult cardiac stem/progenitor cells in the form of cardiospheres from human cardiac biopsies and murine hearts.</a> Methods Molecular Biology. 879, 327-338 (2012).</li><li>van der Vlist, E. J., Nolte-'t Hoen, E. N., Stoorvogel, W., Arkesteijn, G. J., Wauben, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+labeling+of+nano-sized+vesicles+released+by+cells+and+subsequent+quantitative+and+qualitative+analysis+by+high-resolution+flow+cytometry.">Fluorescent labeling of nano-sized vesicles released by cells and subsequent quantitative and qualitative analysis by high-resolution flow cytometry.</a> Nature Protocols. 7, 1311-1326 (2012).</li><li>Pospichalova, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simplified+protocol+for+flow+cytometry+analysis+of+fluorescently+labeled+exosomes+and+microvesicles+using+dedicated+flow+cytometer.">Simplified protocol for flow cytometry analysis of fluorescently labeled exosomes and microvesicles using dedicated flow cytometer.</a> Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 4, 25530 (2015).</li><li>van der Pol, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Particle+size+distribution+of+exosomes+and+microvesicles+determined+by+transmission+electron+microscopy,+flow+cytometry,+nanoparticle+tracking+analysis,+and+resistive+pulse+sensing.">Particle size distribution of exosomes and microvesicles determined by transmission electron microscopy, flow cytometry, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and resistive pulse sensing.</a> Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 12, 1182-1192 (2014).</li><li>Witwer, K. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Updating+the+MISEV+minimal+requirements+for+extracellular+vesicle+studies:+building+bridges+to+reproducibility.">Updating the MISEV minimal requirements for extracellular vesicle studies: building bridges to reproducibility.</a> Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 6, 1396823 (2017).</li><li>Thery, C., Amigorena, S., Raposo, G., Clayton, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+characterization+of+exosomes+from+cell+culture+supernatants+and+biological+fluids.">Isolation and characterization of exosomes from cell culture supernatants and biological fluids.</a> Current Protocols in Cellular Biology. , (2006).</li><li>Suarez, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+bead-assisted+flow+cytometry+method+for+the+semi-quantitative+analysis+of+Extracellular+Vesicles.">A bead-assisted flow cytometry method for the semi-quantitative analysis of Extracellular Vesicles.</a> Scientific Reports. 7, 11271 (2017).</li><li>Sodar, B. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Low-density+lipoprotein+mimics+blood+plasma-derived+exosomes+and+microvesicles+during+isolation+and+detection.">Low-density lipoprotein mimics blood plasma-derived exosomes and microvesicles during isolation and detection.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 24316 (2016).</li><li>Sluijter, J. P. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+vesicles+in+diagnostics+and+therapy+of+the+ischaemic+heart:+Position+Paper+from+the+Working+Group+on+Cellular+Biology+of+the+Heart+of+the+European+Society+of+Cardiology.">Extracellular vesicles in diagnostics and therapy of the ischaemic heart: Position Paper from the Working Group on Cellular Biology of the Heart of the European Society of Cardiology.</a> Cardiovascular Research. 114, 19-34 (2018).</li></ol>

Conventional FC technique remains the most straightforward analytic method to characterize markers expressed onto the surface of EV. In this regard, selecting the most appropriate protocol is crucial to obtain useful information on individual particle fractions of interest by avoiding limitations due to instrument sensitivity. We described a method using magnetic particles coupled with antibodies that recognize Exo and small EV surface antigens which are suitable for downstream FC application. We validated the method usi...

Cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EV) of different sizes including microvesicles (MV) and exosomes (Exo). The latter can be distinguished from MV by both size and the subcellular compartment of origin. MV (200&#8211;1,000 nm in size) are released from parent cells by shedding from the plasma membrane. Conversely, Exo (30&#8211;150 nm) originate from endosomal membranes and are released into the extracellular space when the multivesicular bodies (MVB) fuse with the cell membrane1,2.
EV are increasingly used as diagnostic biomarkers as well as, potentially, therapeutic tools in many fields including oncology, neurology, cardiology, and musculoskeletal diseases3,4,5. A vast majority of ongoing studies using EV as therapeutic agents exploit the isolation of vesicles from cell-conditioned medium (CM) of in vitro cultured cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exert beneficial effects in several contexts, and MSC-derived EV have shown benefits in models of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury6 and brain injury7. MSC-derived EV also exhibit immune modulatory activities that can be exploited to treat immune rejection, as demonstrated in a model of therapy-refractory graft-versus-host disease8. Amniotic fluid stem cells (hAFS) actively enrich CM with MVs and Exo, heterogeneously distributed in size (50&#8211;1,000 nm), which mediate several biological effects, such as proliferation of differentiated cells, angiogenesis, inhibition of fibrosis, and cardioprotection4. We have recently shown that EV, and particularly Exo, secreted by human cardiac-derived progenitor cells (Exo-CPC) reduce myocardial infarct size in rats5,9.
Exo share a common set of proteins on their surface, including tetraspanins (CD63, CD81, CD9) and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I). In addition to this common set of proteins, Exo also contain proteins specific for the EV subset of the producer cell type. Exo markers are gaining paramount importance because they play a crucial role in inter-cellular communication, thereby regulating many biological processes5,10. Because of their small size, finding an easy way to analyze EV using classical flow cytometry (FC) remains a challenging task.
Here, we present a simplified protocol for EV analysis using FC, which can be applied to pre-enriched samples obtained through ultracentrifugation or directly to CM (Figure 1). The method uses beads coated with a specific antibody that binds canonical Exo-associated surface epitopes (CD63, CD9, CD81) without additional washes. FC analyses can be performed using a conventional cytometer with no need for adjustments prior to measurements. Methods for the characterization of antigens on individual small particles using flow cytometers have been described by other groups with respect to various applications11,12,13. Here, we used functionalized magnetic beads for the capture of small particles and Exo, followed by phenotyping of captured particles by FC. Although this method can be used to characterize the antigenic composition of small vesicles released by any cell type in vitro, here we provided specific cell culture conditions that apply for the culture of human cardiac progenitor cells (CPC) and the most appropriate environment for the production of EV by these cells.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:816px;" width="816">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:369px;">IMDM</td>
			<td style="width:113px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:235px;">12440061</td>
			<td style="width:99px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Amicon Ultra-15, PLHK Ultracel-PL Membran, 100&#160;kDa&#160;</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC910024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CytoFlex, Flow Cytometer Platform</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>CytoFlex</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DMEM, high glucose, HEPES, no phenol red</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21063045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dulbecco&#39;s PBS (PBS) Ca- and Mg-free</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>BE17-512F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ExoCap CD63 Capture Kit</td>
			<td>JSR Life Sciences</td>
			<td>Ex-C63-SP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ExoCap CD81 Capture Kit</td>
			<td>JSR Life Sciences</td>
			<td>Ex-C81-SP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ExoCap CD9 Capture Kit</td>
			<td>JSR Life Sciences</td>
			<td>Ex-C9-SP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Exosome-Depleted FBS</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td>A2720801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Exosome-depleted FBS Media Supplement</td>
			<td>SBI</td>
			<td>EXO-FBS-250A-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FBS-Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10270106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FITC anti-human CD9 Antibody</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>312104&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; RRID: AB_2075894</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flow Cytometer analysis software</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>Kaluza</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NanoSight LM10</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td>NanoSight LM10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NanoSight Software</td>
			<td>Malvern</td>
			<td>NTA 2.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Optima Max-XP</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>393315</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PE anti-human CD63 Antibody</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>353004&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; RRID:AB_10897809</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PE anti-human CD81 (TAPA-1) Antibody</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>349505&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; RRID:AB_10642024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermomixer C</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5382 000 015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">TLA-110</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>TLA-110 rotors</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

flow cytometric analysis of extracellular vesicles from cell-conditioned media

Flow cytometry (FC) is the method of choice for semi-quantitative measurement of cell-surface antigen markers. Recently, this technique has been used for phenotypic analyses of extracellular vesicles (EV) including exosomes (Exo) in the peripheral blood and other body fluids. The small size of EV mandates the use of dedicated instruments having a detection threshold around 50-100 nm. Alternatively, EV can be bound to latex microbeads that can be detected by FC. Microbeads, conjugated with antibodies that recognize EV-associated markers/Cluster of Differentiation CD63, CD9, and CD81 can be used for EV capture. Exo isolated from CM can be analyzed with or without pre-enrichment by ultracentrifugation. This approach is suitable for EV analyses using conventional FC instruments. Our results demonstrate a linear correlation between Mean Fluorescence Intensity (MFI) values and EV concentration. Disrupting EV through sonication dramatically decreased MFI, indicating that the method does not detect membrane debris. We report an accurate and reliable method for the analysis of EV surface antigens, which can be easily implemented in any laboratory.

Total number of particles for single staining
Since a single bead can bind more than one particle, we tested different conditions to set the smallest amount of total EV (single antibody per tube) to reach the early exponential phase of MFI curve. A fixed concentration of antibody was used while the total number of particles ranged from 5 x 105 to 2.5 x 108. As shown in ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Flow Cytometric Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from Cell-conditioned Media at JoVE.com

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from Cell-conditioned Media

The protocol describes a reproducible method designed for use with cell culture supernatants to detect surface epitopes on small extracellular vesicles (EV). It utilizes specific EV immunoprecipitation using beads coupled with antibodies that recognize surface antigen CD9, CD63, and CD81. The method is optimized for downstream flow cytometry analysis.

Flow cytometry (FC) is the method of choice for semi-quantitative measurement of cell-surface antigen markers. Recently, this technique has been used for ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Identification and Analysis of Mouse Erythroid Progenitors using the CD71/TER119 Flow-cytometric Assay

The study of erythropoiesis aims to understand how red cells are formed from earlier hematopoietic and erythroid progenitors. Specifically, the rate of ...

Techniques for the Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles Using Flow Cytometry

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-derived vesicles found in bodily fluids that are highly involved in cell-cell communication and help ...

Purification and Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Extracellular Vesicles

Purification and Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Extracellular Vesicles

The secretion of small membrane-bound vesicles into the external environment is a fundamental physiological process of all cells. These extracellular ...

Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis for the Quantification and Size Determination of Extracellular Vesicles

The physiological and pathophysiological roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) have become increasingly recognized, making the EV field a quickly evolving ...

Scalable Isolation and Purification of Extracellular Vesicles from Escherichia coli and Other Bacteria

Scalable Isolation and Purification of Extracellular Vesicles from Escherichia coli and Other Bacteria

Diverse bacterial species secrete ~20-300 nm extracellular vesicles (EVs), comprised of lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, glycans, and other molecules ...

Isolation and Characterization of Cyanobacterial Extracellular Vesicles

Cyanobacteria are a diverse group of photosynthetic, Gram-negative bacteria that play critical roles in global ecosystems and serve as essential ...

Isolation of microRNAs from Tick Ex Vivo Salivary Gland Cultures and Extracellular Vesicles

Isolation of microRNAs from Tick Ex Vivo Salivary Gland Cultures and Extracellular Vesicles

Ticks are important ectoparasites that can vector multiple pathogens. The salivary glands of ticks are essential for feeding as their saliva contains many ...

Isolation and Analysis of Traceable and Functionalized Extracellular Vesicles from the Plasma and Solid Tissues

Circulating and tissue-resident extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent promising targets as novel theranostic biomarkers, and they emerge as important ...

Isolation, Characterization, and Therapeutic Application of Extracellular Vesicles from Cultured Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous membrane nanoparticles released by most cell types, and they are increasingly recognized as physiological ...