We would like to thank the PLATIM team for their technical support, as well as Arezki Boudaoud and members of the Biophysic team at the RDP lab for helpful discussions.

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The emergence of shapes in plants is mainly determined by the coordinated rate and direction of growth during time and space. Plant cells are encased in a rigid cell wall made of a polysaccharidic matrix, which glues them together. As a result, cell expansion is controlled by the equilibrium between turgor pressure pulling on the cell wall, and stiffness of the cell wall resisting to this pressure. In order to understand the mechanisms underlying development, it is important to be able to measure both cell wall mechanica...

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) belongs to the scanning probe microscopy (SPM) family, where a tip with a radius of usually a few nanometers scans the surface of a sample. The detection of a surface is not achieved via optical or electron-based methods, but via the interaction forces between the tip and the sample surface. Thus, this technique is not limited to topographic characterization of a sample surface (3D resolution which can go down to a few nanometers), but also allows the measurement of any type of interaction forces such as electrostatic, van der Waals or contact forces. Furthermore, the tip can be used to apply forces at the surface of a biological sample and measure the resulting deformation, the so-called &#34;indentation&#34;, in order to determine its mechanical properties (e.g., Young&#39;s modulus, viscoelastic properties).
Mechanical properties of plant cell walls are essential to be taken into account when trying to understand mechanisms underlying developmental processes1,2,3. Indeed, these properties are tightly controlled during development, in particular since cell wall softening is required to allow cells to grow. AFM can be used to measure these properties and study the way they change between organs, tissues or developmental stages.
In this paper, we describe how we use AFM to measure both cell wall mechanical properties and turgor pressure. These two applications are demonstrated on two different AFM microscopes and are detailed here after.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:700px;" width="700">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Growth medium</td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td style="width:172px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">1000x vimatin stock solution</td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td>used to make ACM, composition see Stanislas et al., 2017. Add to ACM after autoclaving, before pouring.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:223px;">1-N-Naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Merck</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">132-66-1</td>
			<td>add to Arabidopsis medium, 10 &#956;M. Add after autoclaving, before pouring.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">agar-agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Merck</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">9002-18-0</td>
			<td>add to Arabidopsis medium, 1% w/v.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">agarose</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Merck Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">9012-36-6</td>
			<td>used to make solid ACM, 0.8% w/v.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Arabidopsis medium</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Duchefa Biochimie</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">DU0742.0025</td>
			<td>For in vitro arabidopsis culture, 11.82g/L.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Merck</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">13477-34-4</td>
			<td>add to Arabidopsis medium, 2mM.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">MURASHIGE &#38; SKOOG MEDIUM</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Duchefa Biochimie</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">M0221.0025</td>
			<td>Basal salt mixture, used to make ACM, 2.2g/L.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">N6-benzyladenine (BAP)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Merck</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">1214-39-7</td>
			<td>used to make ACM, 555 nM. Add to ACM after autoclaving, before pouring.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">oryzalin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Merck</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">19044-88-3</td>
			<td>for oryzalin treatement, 10 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:223px;">plant preservation mixture (PPM)</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Plant Cell Technology</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td>used to make ACM, 0.1% v/v. Add to ACM after autoclaving, before pouring.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Potassium hydroxide</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Duchefa Biochimie</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">1310-58-3</td>
			<td>used to make Arabidopsis medium and ACM, both pH 5.8.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Duchefa Biochimie</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">57-50-1</td>
			<td>used to make ACM, 1% w/v.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Tools for AFM</td>
			<td style="width:155px;"></td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">BioScope Catalyst BioAFM</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Bruker</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td>The AFM used for turgor pressure measurement in this protocol.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Nanowizard III + CellHesion</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">JPK (Bruker)</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td>The AFM used for measuring mechanical properties.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Patafix</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">UHU</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">D1620</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Reference elasitic structure</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">NanoIdea</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">2Z00026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Reprorubber-Thin Pour</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Flexbar</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">16135</td>
			<td>biocompatible glue.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Spherical AFM tips</td>
			<td style="width:155px;">Nanoandmore</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">SD-SPHERE-NCH-S-10</td>
			<td>Tips used for measuring mechanical properties.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of atomic force microscopy to measure mechanical properties and turgor pressure of plant cells and plant tissues

We present here the use of atomic force microscopy to indent plant tissues and recover its mechanical properties. Using two different microscopes in indentation mode, we show how to measure an elastic modulus and use it to evaluate cell wall mechanical properties. In addition, we also explain how to evaluate turgor pressure. The main advantages of atomic force microscopy are that it is non-invasive, relatively rapid (5~20 min), and that virtually any type of living plant tissue that is superficially flat can be analyzed without the need for treatment. The resolution can be very good, depending on the tip size and on the number of measurements per unit area. One limitation of this method is that it only gives direct access to the superficial cell layer.

Figure 1A and Figure 1B show a screenshot illustrating the result of the steps 1.3.4 to 1.3.6 of the protocol, used to locate a region of interest where to acquire the QI map. It is worth mentioning that the region of interest has been chosen in order not to be on a tilted surface (i.e., as flat as possible). Actually, as noticed by Routier et al.5, if the indentation axis is not perpendicular to the surfa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Atomic Force Microscopy to Measure Mechanical Properties and Turgor Pressure of Plant Cells and Plant Tissues at JoVE.com

Use of Atomic Force Microscopy to Measure Mechanical Properties and Turgor Pressure of Plant Cells and Plant Tissues

Here, we present atomic force microscopy (AFM), operated as a nano- and micro-indentation tool on cells and tissues. The instrument allows the simultaneous acquisition of 3D surface topography of the sample and its mechanical properties, including cell wall Young's modulus as well as turgor pressure.

We present here the use of atomic force microscopy to indent plant tissues and recover its mechanical properties. Using two different microscopes in ...

use-atomic-force-microscopy-to-measure-mechanical-properties-turgor

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

11.3K Views.  Université de Lyon. Here, we present atomic force microscopy (AFM), operated as a nano- and micro-indentation tool on cells and tissues. The instrument allows the simultaneous acquisition of 3D surface topography of the sample and its mechanical properties, including cell wall Young's modulus as well as turgor pressure.

Video: Use of Atomic Force Microscopy to Measure Mechanical Properties and Turgor Pressure of Plant Cells and Plant Tissues

Geomagnetic Field (Gmf) and Plant Evolution: Investigating the Effects of Gmf Reversal on Arabidopsis thaliana Development and Gene Expression

One of the most stimulating observations in plant evolution is a correlation between the occurrence of geomagnetic field (GMF) reversals (or excursions) and the moment of the radiation of Angiosperms. This led to the hypothesis that alterations in GMF polarity may play a role in plant evolution. Here, we describe a method to test this hypothesis by exposing Arabidopsis thaliana to artificially reversed GMF conditions. We used a three-axis magnetometer and the collected data were used to calculate the magnitude of the GMF. Three DC power supplies were connected to three Helmholtz coil pairs and were controlled by a computer to alter the GMF conditions. Plants grown in Petri plates were exposed to both normal and reversed GMF conditions. Sham exposure experiments were also performed. Exposed plants were photographed during the experiment and images were analyzed to calculate root length and leaf areas. Arabidopsis total RNA was extracted and Quantitative Real Time-PCR (qPCR) analyses were performed on gene expression of CRUCIFERIN 3 (CRU3), copper transport protein1 (COTP1), Redox Responsive Transcription Factor1 (RRTF1), Fe Superoxide Dismutase 1, (FSD1), Catalase3 (CAT3), Thylakoidal Ascorbate Peroxidase (TAPX), a cytosolic Ascorbate Peroxidase1 (APX1), and NADPH/respiratory burst oxidase protein D (RbohD). Four different reference genes were analysed to normalize the results of the qPCR. The best of the four genes was selected and the most stable gene for normalization was used. Our data show for the first time that reversing the GMF polarity using triaxial coils has significant effects on plant growth and gene expression. This supports the hypothesis that GMF reversal contributes to inducing changes in plant development that might justify a higher selective pressure, eventually leading to plant evolution.

Geomagnetic Field Gmf and Plant Evolution: Investigating the Effects of Gmf Reversal on Arabidopsis thaliana Development and Gene Expression

This protocol describes a method to test the hypothesis that the reversal of the effective geomagnetic field (GMF) induces differential gene expression and alters the morphology of Arabidopsis thaliana. A triaxial octagonal system of Helmholtz coil-pairs was used to artificially generate reversed GMF conditions in the plant growth chamber.

One of the most stimulating observations in plant evolution is a correlation between the occurrence of geomagnetic field (GMF) reversals (or excursions) ...

Epigenetic Regulation of Cardiac Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cells and Tissues

Specific gene transcription is a key biological process that underlies cell fate decision during embryonic development. The biological process is mediated by transcription factors which bind genomic regulatory regions including enhancers and promoters of cardiac constitutive genes. DNA is wrapped around histones that are subjected to chemical modifications. Modifications of histones further lead to repressed, activated or poised gene transcription, thus bringing another level of fine tuning regulation of gene transcription. Embryonic Stem cells (ES cells) recapitulate within embryoid bodies (i.e., cell aggregates) or in 2D culture the early steps of cardiac development. They provide in principle enough material for chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), a technology broadly used to identify gene regulatory regions. Furthermore, human ES cells represent a human cell model of cardiogenesis. At later stages of development, mouse embryonic tissues allow for investigating specific epigenetic landscapes required for determination of cell identity. Herein, we describe protocols of ChIP, sequential ChIP followed by PCR or ChIP-sequencing using ES cells, embryoid bodies and cardiac specific embryonic regions. These protocols allow to investigating the epigenetic regulation of cardiac gene transcription.

A fine tuning regulation of gene transcription underlies embryonic cell fate decision. Herein, we describe chromatin immunoprecipitation assays used to investigate epigenetic regulation of both cardiac differentiation of stem cells and cardiac development of mouse embryos.

Specific gene transcription is a key biological process that underlies cell fate decision during embryonic development. The biological process is mediated ...

A Simple Chamber for Long-term Confocal Imaging of Root and Hypocotyl Development

Several aspects of plant development, such as lateral root morphogenesis, occur on time spans of several days. To study underlying cellular and subcellular processes, high resolution time-lapse microscopy strategies that preserve physiological conditions are required. Plant tissues must have adequate nutrient and water supply with sustained gaseous exchange but, when submerged and immobilized under a coverslip, they are particularly susceptible to anoxia. One strategy that has been successfully employed is the use of a perfusion system to maintain a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients. However, such arrangements can be complicated, cumbersome, and require specialized equipment. Presented here is an alternative strategy for a simple imaging system using perfluorodecalin as an immersion medium. This system is easy to set up, requires minimal equipment, and is easily mounted on a microscope stage, allowing several imaging chambers to be set up and imaged in parallel. In this system, lateral root growth rates are indistinguishable from growth rates under standard conditions on agar plates for the first two days, and lateral root growth continues at reduced rates for at least another day. Plant tissues are supplied with nutrients via an agar slab that can be used also to administer a range of pharmacological compounds. The system was established to monitor lateral root development but is readily adaptable to image other plant organs such as hypocotyls and primary roots.

Presented here is a simple technique for high-resolution confocal time-lapse imaging of root and hypocotyl development for up to 3 days using high numerical-aperture objectives and perfluorodecalin as an immersion medium.

Several aspects of plant development, such as lateral root morphogenesis, occur on time spans of several days. To study underlying cellular and ...

Whole-mount Clearing and Staining of Arabidopsis Flower Organs and Siliques

Due to its formidable tools for molecular genetic studies, Arabidopsis thaliana is one of the most prominent model species in plant biology and, especially, in plant reproductive biology. However, plant morphological, anatomical, and ultrastructural analyses traditionally involve time-consuming embedding and sectioning procedures for bright field, scanning, and electron microscopy. Recent progress in confocal fluorescence microscopy, state-of-the-art 3-D computer-aided microscopic analyses, and the continuous refinement of molecular techniques to be used on minimally processed whole-mount specimens, has led to an increased demand for developing efficient and minimal sample processing techniques. In this protocol, we describe techniques for properly dissecting Arabidopsis flowers and siliques, basic clearing techniques, and some staining procedures for whole-mount observations of reproductive structures.

Whole-mount Clearing and Staining of Arabidopsis Flower Organs and Siliques

In this protocol, we describe techniques for the proper dissection of Arabidopsis flowers and siliques, some basic clearing techniques, and selected staining procedures for whole-mount observations of reproductive structures.

Due to its formidable tools for molecular genetic studies, Arabidopsis thaliana is one of the most prominent model species in plant biology and, ...

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and chromosome dynamics. While the germline is an excellent model, the analysis is often two dimensional due to the time and labor required for three-dimensional analysis. Major readouts in such studies are the number/position of nuclei and protein distribution within the germline. Here, we present a method to perform automated analysis of the germline using confocal microscopy and computational approaches to determine the number and position of nuclei in each region of the germline. Our method also analyzes germline protein distribution that enables the three-dimensional examination of protein expression in different genetic backgrounds. Further, our study shows variations in cytoskeletal architecture in distinct regions of the germline that may accommodate specific spatial developmental requirements. Finally, our method enables automated counting of the sperm in the spermatheca of each germline. Taken together, our method enables rapid and reproducible phenotypic analysis of the C. elegans germline.

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and ...

Confocal Live Imaging of Shoot Apical Meristems from Different Plant Species

The shoot apical meristem (SAM) functions as a conserved stem cell reservoir and it generates almost all aboveground tissues during the postembryonic development. The activity and morphology of SAMs determine important agronomic traits, such as shoot architecture, size and number of reproductive organs, and most importantly, grain yield. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for analyzing both the surface morphology and the internal cellular structure of the living SAMs from different species through laser scanning confocal microscope. The whole procedure from the sample preparation to the acquisition of high resolution three-dimensional (3D) images can be accomplished within as short as 20 minutes. We demonstrate that this protocol is highly efficient for studying not only the inflorescence SAMs of the model species but also the vegetative meristems from different crops, providing a simple but powerful tool to study the organization and development of meristems across different plant species.

This protocol presents how to live image and analyze the shoot apical meristems from different plant species using laser scanning confocal microscopy.

The shoot apical meristem (SAM) functions as a conserved stem cell reservoir and it generates almost all aboveground tissues during the postembryonic ...

Development of Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) Populations in Small Grain Crops by Ethyl Methanesulfonate Mutagenesis

Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) is a powerful reverse genetics tool that includes chemical mutagenesis and detection of sequence variation in target genes. TILLING is a highly valuable functional genomics tool for gene validation, especially in small grains in which transformation-based approaches hold serious limitations. Developing a robust mutagenized population is key to determining the efficiency of a TILLING-based gene validation study. A TILLING population with a low overall mutation frequency indicates that an impractically large population must be screened to find desired mutations, whereas a high mutagen concentration leads to high mortality in the population, leading to an insufficient number of mutagenized individuals. Once an effective population is developed, there are multiple ways to detect mutations in a gene of interest, and the choice of platform depends upon the experimental scale and availability of resources. The Cel-1 assay and agarose gel-based approach for mutant identification is convenient, reproducible, and a less resource-intensive platform. It is advantageous in that it is simple, requiring no computational knowledge, and it is especially suitable for validation of a small number of genes with basic lab equipment. In the present article, described are the methods for development of a good TILLING population, including preparation of the dosage curve, mutagenesis and maintenance of the mutant population, and screening of the mutant population using the PCR-based Cel-1 assay.

Development of Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes TILLING Populations in Small Grain Crops by Ethyl Methanesulfonate Mutagenesis

Described is a protocol for developing a Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) population in small grain crops with use of ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) as a mutagen. Also provided is a protocol for mutation detection using the Cel-1 assay.

Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) is a powerful reverse genetics tool that includes chemical mutagenesis and detection of sequence ...

Assessment of Oxidative Damage in the Primary Mouse Ocular Surface Cells/Stem Cells in Response to Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) Damage

The ocular surface is subjected to regular wear and tear due to various environmental factors. Exposure to UV-C radiation constitutes an occupational health hazard. Here, we demonstrate the exposure of primary stem cells from the mouse ocular surface to UV-C radiation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation is the readout of the extent of oxidative stress/damage. In an experimental in vitro setting, it is also essential to assess the percentage of dead cells generated due to oxidative stress. In this article, we will demonstrate the 2&#39;,7&#39;-Dichlorofluoresceindiacetate (DCFDA) staining of UV-C exposed mouse primary ocular surface stem cells and their quantification based on the fluorescent images of DCFDA staining. DCFDA staining directly corresponds to ROS generation. We also demonstrate the quantification of dead and live cells by simultaneous staining with propidium iodide (PI) and Hoechst 3332 respectively and the percentage of DCFDA (ROS positive) and PI positive cells.

Assessment of Oxidative Damage in the Primary Mouse Ocular Surface Cells/Stem Cells in Response to Ultraviolet-C UV-C Damage

This protocol demonstrates the simultaneous detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS), live cells, and dead cells in live primary cultures from mouse ocular surface cells. 2&#39;,7&#39;-Dichlorofluoresceindiacetate, propidium iodide, and Hoechst staining are used to assess the ROS, dead cells, and live cells, respectively, followed by imaging and analysis.

The ocular surface is subjected to regular wear and tear due to various environmental factors. Exposure to UV-C radiation constitutes an occupational ...

Translating Ribosome Affinity Purification (TRAP) to Investigate Arabidopsis thaliana Root Development at a Cell Type-Specific Scale

In this article, we give hands-on instructions to obtain translatome data from different Arabidopsis thaliana root cell types via the translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) method and consecutive optimized low-input library preparation.
As starting material, we employ plant lines that express GFP-tagged ribosomal protein RPL18 in a cell type-specific manner by use of adequate promoters. Prior to immunopurification and RNA extraction, the tissue is snap frozen, which preserves tissue integrity and simultaneously allows execution of time series studies with high temporal resolution. Notably, cell wall structures remain intact, which is a major drawback in alternative procedures such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting-based approaches that rely on tissue protoplasting to isolate distinct cell populations. Additionally, no tissue fixation is necessary as in laser capture microdissection-based techniques, which allows high-quality RNA to be obtained.
However, sampling from subpopulations of cells and only isolating polysome-associated RNA severely limits RNA yields. It is, therefore, necessary to apply sufficiently sensitive library preparation methods for successful data acquisition by RNA-seq.
TRAP offers an ideal tool for plant research as many developmental processes involve cell wall-related and mechanical signaling pathways. The use of promoters to target specific cell populations is bridging the gap between organ and single-cell level that in turn suffer from little resolution or very high costs. Here, we apply TRAP to study cell-cell communication in lateral root formation.

Translating Ribosome Affinity Purification TRAP to Investigate Arabidopsis thaliana Root Development at a Cell Type-Specific Scale

Translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) offers the possibility to dissect developmental programs with minimal processing of organs and tissues. The protocol yields high-quality RNA from cells targeted with a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled ribosomal subunit. Downstream analysis tools, such as qRT-PCR or RNA-seq, reveal tissue and cell type-specific expression profiles.

In this article, we give hands-on instructions to obtain translatome data from different Arabidopsis thaliana root cell types via the translating ribosome ...

Live Cell Imaging of Microtubule Cytoskeleton and Micromechanical Manipulation of the Arabidopsis Shoot Apical Meristem

Understanding cell and tissue level regulation of growth and morphogenesis has been at the forefront of biological research for many decades. Advances in molecular and imaging technologies allowed us to gain insights into how biochemical signals influence morphogenetic events. However, it is increasingly evident that apart from biochemical signals, mechanical cues also impact several aspects of cell and tissue growth. The Arabidopsis shoot apical meristem (SAM) is a dome-shaped structure responsible for the generation of all aboveground organs. The organization of the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton that mediates apoplastic cellulose deposition in plant cells is spatially distinct. Visualization and quantitative assessment of patterns of cortical microtubules are necessary for understanding the biophysical nature of cells at the SAM, as cellulose is the stiffest component of the plant cell wall. The stereotypical form of cortical microtubule organization is also a consequence of tissue-wide physical forces existing at the SAM. Perturbation of these physical forces and subsequent monitoring of cortical microtubule organization allows for the identification of candidate proteins involved in mediating mechano-perception and transduction. Here we describe a protocol that helps investigate such processes.

Live Cell Imaging of Microtubule Cytoskeleton and Micromechanical Manipulation of the Arabidopsis Shoot Apical Meristem

Here we describe a protocol for live cell imaging of the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton at the shoot apical meristem and monitoring its response to changes in physical forces.

Understanding cell and tissue level regulation of growth and morphogenesis has been at the forefront of biological research for many decades. Advances in ...