The authors gratefully acknowledge Susann Lehmann, Iloana Klamfu&#223; and Petra Wolff for animal housing and care and Matthias Wyss for support during the establishment of the online blood sampling system. The small animal PET/CT was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (INST 2268/6-1 FUGG).

<ol>
	<li>Schain, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arterial+input+function+derived+from+pairwise+correlations+between+PET-image+voxels.">Arterial input function derived from pairwise correlations between PET-image voxels.</a> Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 33 (7), 1058-1065 (2013).</li><li>Schain, M., Zanderigo, F., Mann, J. J., Ogden, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimation+of+the+binding+potential+BPND+without+a+reference+region+or+blood+samples+for+brain+PET+studies.">Estimation of the binding potential BPND without a reference region or blood samples for brain PET studies.</a> NeuroImage. 146, 121-131 (2017).</li><li>Bentourkia, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+the+Input+Function+at+the+Entry+of+the+Tissue+of+Interest+and+Its+Impact+on+PET+Kinetic+Modeling+Parameters.">Determination of the Input Function at the Entry of the Tissue of Interest and Its Impact on PET Kinetic Modeling Parameters.</a> Molecular Imaging and Biology. 17 (6), 748-756 (2015).</li><li>Phelps, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> PET. , (2004).</li><li>Laforest, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+input+functions+in+rodents:+challenges+and+solutions.">Measurement of input functions in rodents: challenges and solutions.</a> Nuclear Medicine and Biology. 32 (7), 679-685 (2005).</li><li>Napieczynska, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+the+Arterial+Input+Function+Recording+Method+on+Kinetic+Parameters+in+Small-Animal+PET.">Impact of the Arterial Input Function Recording Method on Kinetic Parameters in Small-Animal PET.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 59 (7), 1159-1164 (2018).</li><li>Sijbesma, J. W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+Approach+to+Repeated+Arterial+Blood+Sampling+in+Small+Animal+PET:+Application+in+a+Test-Retest+Study+with+the+Adenosine+A1+Receptor+Ligand+[(11)C]MPDX.">Novel Approach to Repeated Arterial Blood Sampling in Small Animal PET: Application in a Test-Retest Study with the Adenosine A1 Receptor Ligand [(11)C]MPDX.</a> Molecular Imaging and Biology: MIB: the Official Publication of the Academy of Molecular Imaging. 18 (5), 715-723 (2016).</li><li>Jespersen, B., Knupp, L., Northcott, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Femoral+arterial+and+venous+catheterization+for+blood+sampling,+drug+administration+and+conscious+blood+pressure+and+heart+rate+measurements.">Femoral arterial and venous catheterization for blood sampling, drug administration and conscious blood pressure and heart rate measurements.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (59), e3496 (2012).</li><li>Weber, B., Burger, C., Biro, P., Buck, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+femoral+arteriovenous+shunt+facilitates+arterial+whole+blood+sampling+in+animals.">A femoral arteriovenous shunt facilitates arterial whole blood sampling in animals.</a> European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. 29 (3), 319-323 (2002).</li><li>Liu, H. -. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microvascular+anastomosis+of+submillimeter+vessels-a+training+model+in+rats.">Microvascular anastomosis of submillimeter vessels-a training model in rats.</a> Journal of Hand and Microsurgery. 5 (1), 14-17 (2013).</li><li>van der Weerdt, A. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Image-derived+input+functions+for+determination+of+MRGlu+in+cardiac+(18)F-FDG+PET+scans.">Image-derived input functions for determination of MRGlu in cardiac (18)F-FDG PET scans.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 42 (18), 1622-1629 (2001).</li><li>Alf, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+brain+glucose+metabolism+by+18F-FDG+PET+with+real-time+arterial+and+image-derived+input+function+in+mice.">Quantification of brain glucose metabolism by 18F-FDG PET with real-time arterial and image-derived input function in mice.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 54 (1), 132-138 (2013).</li><li>Eriksson, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+computerized+infusion+pump+for+control+of+tissue+tracer+concentration+during+positron+emission+tomography+in+vivo+pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic+measurements.">A computerized infusion pump for control of tissue tracer concentration during positron emission tomography in vivo pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic measurements.</a> BMC Medical Physics. 8, 2 (2008).</li><li>Burger, C., Buck, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracer+kinetic+modelling+of+receptor+data+with+mathematical+metabolite+correction.">Tracer kinetic modelling of receptor data with mathematical metabolite correction.</a> European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 23 (5), 539-545 (1996).</li><li>Iida, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Error+analysis+of+a+quantitative+cerebral+blood+flow+measurement+using+H2(15)O+autoradiography+and+positron+emission+tomography,+with+respect+to+the+dispersion+of+the+input+function.">Error analysis of a quantitative cerebral blood flow measurement using H2(15)O autoradiography and positron emission tomography, with respect to the dispersion of the input function.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism: Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 6 (5), 536-545 (1986).</li><li>Munk, O. L., Keiding, S., Bass, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+to+estimate+dispersion+in+sampling+catheters+and+to+calculate+dispersion-free+blood+time-activity+curves.">A method to estimate dispersion in sampling catheters and to calculate dispersion-free blood time-activity curves.</a> Medical Physics. 35 (8), 3471-3481 (2008).</li><li>Meyer, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+correction+for+tracer+arrival+delay+and+dispersion+in+CBF+measurements+by+the+H215O+autoradiographic+method+and+dynamic+PET.">Simultaneous correction for tracer arrival delay and dispersion in CBF measurements by the H215O autoradiographic method and dynamic PET.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 30 (6), 1069-1078 (1989).</li><li>Lanz, B., Poitry-Yamate, C., Gruetter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Image-derived+input+function+from+the+vena+cava+for+18F-FDG+PET+studies+in+rats+and+mice.">Image-derived input function from the vena cava for 18F-FDG PET studies in rats and mice.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 55 (8), 1380-1388 (2014).</li><li>Geworski, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicenter+comparison+of+calibration+and+cross+calibration+of+PET+scanners.">Multicenter comparison of calibration and cross calibration of PET scanners.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 43 (5), 635-639 (2002).</li><li>Boellaard, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Standards+for+PET+image+acquisition+and+quantitative+data+analysis.">Standards for PET image acquisition and quantitative data analysis.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 50, 11-20 (2009).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The presented results are extracted from a larger-scale project on neuronal activity in a transgenic animal model of Huntington&#39;s disease compared to wildtype rats. Altogether 30 transgenic and wildtype rats were catheterized and manual and online blood sampling in parallel to [18F]FDG-PET/CT was performed. Three AIFs of wildtype rats are shown here to demonstrate the range of possible outcomes of the protocol. The results of the complete project on changes of neuronal activity in an animal model of Huntington&#39;s disease will be published elsewhere.
The here described method enables fast and accurate continuous blood sampling in a big cohort and provides a gapless AIF for kinetic modeling of dynamic PET/CT data in small animals. An external blood circulation is generated to detect actual time activity in the blood of the animals; consequently a loss of blood is avoided. The surgical procedure is based on Jespersen et al.8 and was modified to meet the needs for arterial blood sampling during the PET/CT measurements. The shunt system was validated by Weber et al.9. With the here used setup, an external blood volume of about 1.1 mL is running through the detector-pump system. A rat aged 4 month has a total blood volume of about 30 mL. The diameter of the femoral vein and artery is approximately 0.45-0.6 mm10 and needs to be a little starched to insert the catheter used.
The AIF can also be measured via sporadic manual blood collection or be reconstructed from early time points of the PET images itself (image-derived). Both approaches were performed with the here presented data and compared to the continuous blood sampling.
In comparison to manual blood sampling, with online blood sampling a noticeable higher temporal resolution (here: 1800 data points per 30 min) becomes possible. Manual blood draws (here: 5 data points per 30 min) are limited to the blood volume present in the small animal, as these samples are not pumped back into the circulation of the animal. Moreover, a maximum interval of 10-15 s is technically implementable and important information for kinetic modeling is missed. This can also be seen in the presented data, as a difference in the detected maximum of continuous and manual blood sampling is obvious (Figure 3A,C,E). With online blood sampling the detected peak was higher than with the image-derived input function of the ascending aorta11 (Figure 3B,D,F). The Imaged-derived input function is restricted to the spatial resolution of PET scanners which results in partial volume effects12 and is affected by the reconstructed time frames.
A general advantage of this continuous blood sampling procedure is that the tracer can be applied via the catheter, which is less prone to disturbance than injection via the lateral tail vein. Keep in mind that the tracer should be applied in a moderate volume to prevent the tracer from remaining in the beginning of the tube system. To ensure that no activity is remaining in the dead volume of the T-piece, it is flushed with heparinized saline solution afterwards. Moreover, the usage of an infusion pump is advised as it enables adjustment of the speed of the tracer injection and can contribute to more coordinated acquisition of the maximum radioactivity peak with manual blood sampling13.
There are a few possible difficulties that might occur during protocol processing and can be handled by the following troubleshooting. A sub-optimal position of the catheters might lead to an incomplete execution of the protocol, therefore ensure that they are accurately fixed with the proximal suture and that the catheter is pushed 2-3 cm proximal into the vessel. In addition, fibrin adhesive can be used. Also formation of thrombi can clog the catheters. This can be handled by increasing the heparin concentration and subsequent flushing of the catheters or the tube system. Such a sub-optimal outcome due to clogging of the catheters is shown in the results, the maximum peak is missed (Figure 3E). Another critical point concerning animal protection and well-being is the length of the extracorporeal blood flow. It is therefore suggested to reduce the length of the tube system to a minimum.
When blood sampling is performed, three corrections of the resulting AIF have to be taken into account. First, plasma correction. Tracers equilibrate between plasma and blood cells, mainly erythrocytes. Depending on how fast these diffusion processes are, the available tracer is mainly present in plasma. For some tracers, the ratio of plasma to whole blood needs to be considered, such as more lipophilic ones. In these cases, plasma activity has to be determined. If [18F]FDG is used, there is no need to centrifuge the blood to determine the plasma activity, as it equilibrates very fast between plasma and red blood cells and the availability of [18F]FDG in plasma is similar to that in the whole blood. Secondly, metabolite correction. Many tracers are metabolized in whole blood and some of these metabolites are still radioactively labeled14. This fraction is present in the AIF but is not available for tissue uptake. For some tracers metabolites need to be determined in whole blood or plasma and the AIF needs to be corrected. Thirdly, dispersion correction. Dispersion is caused by several factors, including (a) the systematic time difference between the tracer arrival times in the tissue relative to the peripheral sampling site (delay correction) and (b) and the smearing of the shape of the AIF, as the tracer transport within the tube system is influenced by its first order lag (PT1) kinetics. Several corrections based on deconvolution have been proposed, mainly based on the model by Iida et al.15, but most of them are susceptible to noise. A correction method which circumvents deconvolution and is therefore less prone to noise has been proposed by Munk et al.16. The necessary measurements to estimate the correction parameters have to be performed for every combination of tubing and tracer used. Dispersion correction should be done before time delay correction17. However, mainly fast tissue perfusion processes are affected by dispersion and it has also been shown, that for modeling of [18F]FDG studies a dispersion correction is not absolutely necessary18. Therefore, in the presented examples the dispersion correction of the AIF has not been applied.
A proper calibration of the on-site dose calibrator and its regular quality control is a prerequisite for the type of cross calibration procedures presented here. However, if the activity administered to the animal is measured with the same dose calibrator, any deviation in accuracy will be cancelled out, provided that the deviation is constant and the complete cross calibration procedure has been followed, including nuclide-specific corrections (e.g., for varying half-life or different branching ratio). Using such a calibration procedure for harmonizing PET/CT systems used in human health care and research, an accuracy of at least 5-10% could be achieved19,20.
The calibrated and corrected AIFs generated by successful implementation of this protocol enable quantification of PET/CT data for the characterization of animal disease models, testing of new therapy options, establishment of new tracers, and transferring of existing tracers into another species. Seemingly, continuous blood sampling in [18]FDG-PET/CT in rats delivers the most reliable information for the calculation of the input in bio-kinetic modeling. By taking into account the individual metabolism, especially liver clearance, a more precise assessment of the relevant pathological or therapeutical effects is possible. With this practicable protocol, a higher efficiency of preclinical PET/CT data analysis is easily implementable.

Positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) is a nuclear imaging technology that enables visualization of metabolic processes in the body following injection of a radioactively labeled ligand, also called tracer. Whereas the ligand is a molecule that is involved in a metabolic pathway or targets cell surface proteins, the radioactive label is a positron-emitting radionuclide. Gamma rays are indirectly emitted by the positron decay and allow the detection of its distribution in the organism with extracorporeal PET detectors. In this way, different cellular molecules can be targeted: neurotransmitter receptors and transporters, metabolic processes like glycolysis or mitochondrial proteins like the translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO) to detect activated glia cells.
In preclinical research, PET/CT is an attractive method to study biochemical processes in a non-invasive manner in vivo, thus allowing longitudinal studies. PET/CT data support the analyses of disease mechanisms, the assessment of the characteristics and pharmacokinetics of new drugs and the validation of both, current and novel radiotracers for translational research.
During PET/CT analyses three tracer states can be defined (example of the 2-tissue compartment model): First, the tracer flows within the blood after its application (state 1; conc.[blood]). Second, it enters the tissue via the capillary bed and can there either freely move within the extracellular space or is unspecifically bound to diverse cellular or extracellular structures (state 2; conc.[unspec]). Third, the tracer can be specifically bound (with or without metabolic trapping) to its target molecule (state 3, conc.[spec]). All these dynamic processes between the compartments are to some extent bidirectional and the diffusion processes are described by rate constants (K1, k2, k3, and k4). While the concentration of the tracer in the blood (i.e., state 1) is called &#34;Input&#34;, the concentration of unspecifically and specifically bound tracer (i.e., state 2 and state 3) is called &#34;Output&#34; and can be directly derived from the PET Image. This physiological relation can be displayed in the 2-tissue compartment model (Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59701/59701fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: The two-tissue compartmental model. The physiological conditions of the three different tracer states and the dynamic processes between them are displayed. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59701/59701fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
In the ideal case, conc.[spec] is proportional to the concentration of its target molecule. However, the output of the PET/CT measurement is the sum of conc.[spec] and conc.[unspec]. To determine conc.[spec] in the region of interest, in parallel the conc.[unspec] of a reference region devoid of the target protein/pathway is determined. By using appropriate mathematical equations one can now calculate conc.[spec], most commonly using the compartment model (a bio-kinetic modeling approach). However, in many cases, such a reference region devoid of the target protein is not available1,2. In these cases, the conc.[blood] can be used to determine conc.[spec]. Since the conc.[blood] is varying due to different liver and kidney clearance, excretion, blood flow, different brain-blood barrier penetration and disease-related factors3, the current gold standard is to measure the conc.[blood] in parallel to the PET/CT scan by continuous blood sampling. This gives the arterial input function (AIF), which is defined as conc.[blood] over time4. Of note, performing continuous blood sampling is considered technically highly challenging, especially in small animals such as rats or mice5.
Here, we provide an easy and practical protocol to continuously sample blood from rats via an arteriovenous (a-v) shunt between the femoral vein and artery. Coupled to a commercially available detector-pump system, we are able to generate a real-time, continuous AIF during dynamic [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG)-PET/CT scans in rats and compared it to alternative approaches. PET/CT imaging was performed in male sprague dawley rats at an age of 4 months with an average weight of 462 g &#177; 33 g (mean &#177; standard deviation) using a multimodality PET/CT scanner.
Since a wide variety of devices is used during the series of measurements (dose calibrator, online blood sampler, PET/CT, and well counter), a quality control procedure referred as cross calibration is needed to check the quantitative accuracy of all systems and to compensate for differences. Cross calibration in the context of online blood sampling means that the count rate for a given activity concentration measured in corrected PET images can be converted into the concentration measured with the twilite system for the same concentration. Therefore, a cross calibration procedure between PET/CT, blood sampling system, and well counter has been established.
This highly standardized methodology provides a powerful approach to quantify metabolic and cellular processes in preclinical small animal research and is an elegant way to improve the reliability and reproducibility of the AIF. The AIF can then be used to quantify the specifically bound tracer in tissue in preclinical PET/CT data using bio-kinetic modeling.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sugery for arteriovenous shunt</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anesthesia station</td>
			<td>Groppler</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>aneurysm clips</td>
			<td>Aesculap</td>
			<td>FT190T</td>
			<td>5 mm, closing force 70 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bulldog clamp</td>
			<td>Aesculap</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>35 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dissectiong scissors BC165</td>
			<td>Aesculap</td>
			<td>490-866</td>
			<td>dull, for skin preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>heating mat</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>insulin syringe</td>
			<td>Braun</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>30G</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>needle holder</td>
			<td>medicon</td>
			<td>11.62.18</td>
			<td>micro surgical</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pliers for aneurysm clips</td>
			<td>Aesculap</td>
			<td>FT 470T</td>
			<td>Yasargil</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>portex fine bore polythene tubing</td>
			<td>Smith Medical</td>
			<td>800/100/200</td>
			<td>ID 0.58 mm, OD 0.96 mm; PE50 equivalent tubing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>surgical microscope with camera</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>M50 + MC120 HD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>suture filaments 6.0</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>6.0, polypropylene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>suture filaments 3.0</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3.0, absorbable, braided</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>two anatomical forceps</td>
			<td>Hammacher Soling</td>
			<td>HSC601-11</td>
			<td>micro surgery, 45&#176;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vascular or corneal scissors</td>
			<td>Geuder</td>
			<td>G19605</td>
			<td>micro surgery scissors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PET/CT imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dose calibrator ISOMED 2010</td>
			<td>nivia instruments GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for tracer portioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inveon PET/CT</td>
			<td>Siemens</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tracer (e.g. 18F-FDG)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>manuel bloodsampling</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>capillary blood collection EDTA tube</td>
			<td>KABE Labortechnik GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>GK 150 EDTA 200 &#181;l</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>test tubes</td>
			<td>SARSTEDT</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5 ml, 75 x 12 mm, PS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>well counter CAPTUS 700t</td>
			<td>Capintec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>manuel measurement of blood activity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>automatic blood sampling</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD Venflon TM pro safety shielded IV catheter; 18 G (1.3 mm x 32 mm)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>3932269</td>
			<td>luer connections (to fit in t-connections)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bloodsampler twilite two</td>
			<td>swisstrace GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>combi stopper</td>
			<td>Braun</td>
			<td>4495101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>heparin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>50U/ml for tube flushing before the experiment and aspiration during catheter surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>hypodermic needle</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>G23 x 1 1/4&#34; / 0.6 x 30 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microprocessor controlled tubing pump</td>
			<td>Ismatec/Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>ISM596</td>
			<td>12 rollers, 2 channels</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PSAMPLE modul of PMOD</td>
			<td>PMOD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>reduction connectors</td>
			<td>Ismatec/Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>ISM569A</td>
			<td>from ID 2.5 mm to ID 1.5 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>silicone pump tubes</td>
			<td>Ismatec/Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>070535-17-ND /SC0065N</td>
			<td>for roller pump (yellow/blue/yellow ID 1.52 mm, WT 0.84 mm, OD 3.2 mm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>silicone pump tubes - adapter tubing</td>
			<td>Ismatec/Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>SC 0107</td>
			<td>black/black/black ID 0.76 mm, WT 0.86 mm, OD: 2.48 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>t-piece or t-connections</td>
			<td>Ismatec/Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>ISM 693A</td>
			<td>ID 2.5 mm</td>
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continuous blood sampling in small animal positron emission tomography/computed tomography enables the measurement of the arterial input function

For quantitative analysis and bio-kinetic modeling of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) data, the determination of the temporal blood time-activity concentration also known as arterial input function (AIF) is a key point, especially for the characterization of animal disease models and the introduction of newly developed radiotracers. The knowledge of radiotracer availability in the blood helps to interpret PET/CT-derived data of tissue activity. For this purpose, online blood sampling during the PET/CT imaging is advisable to measure the AIF. In contrast to manual blood sampling and image-derived approaches, continuous online blood sampling has several advantages. Besides the minimized blood loss, there is an improved resolution and a superior accuracy for the blood activity measurement. However, the major drawback of online blood sampling is the costly and time-consuming preparation to catheterize the femoral vessels of the animal. Here, we describe an easy and complete workflow for catheterization and continuous blood sampling during small animal PET/CT imaging and compared it to manual blood sampling and an image-derived approach. Using this highly-standardized workflow, the determination of the fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) AIF is demonstrated. Further, this procedure can be applied to any radiotracer in combination with different animal models to create fundamental knowledge of tracer kinetic and model characteristics. This allows a more precise evaluation of the behavior of pharmaceuticals, both for diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the preclinical research of oncological, neurodegenerative and myocardial diseases.

The setup of the shunt system is displayed in Figure 2. Representative results of the continuous blood sampling data compared to manual blood sampling data in three wildtype rats over a time span of 30 min are presented in Figure 3A,C. At the beginning of the continuous blood sampling, an initial peak (maximum of radioactivity concentration) can be seen at 5 s after tracer injection. Afterwards, the activity in the blood declines rapidly and reaches a plateau at about 15 min. In the manual blood sampling data the detected Peak is smaller and the plateau is not easily to define (Figure 3A,C). The comparison of the continuous blood sampling to the image-derived data is displayed in Figure 3B,D. In the image-derived data, the peak and the starting point of the plateau are clearly visible, nevertheless the maximum of the peak is smaller compared to continuous blood sampling data for all animals (Figure 3B,D).
A sub-optimal outcome of continuous blood sampling with our setup is shown in Figure 3E,F. At the beginning of the continuous blood sampling, no data acquisition within the first 3.5 min was possible due to blood clotting. By disconnecting the tube system at connector orange and floating with heparinized saline solution, the flow in the tube system was restarted and the measurement continued. A peak can be seen at about 4 min, which does not record the maximum of radioactivity in blood (Figure 3E,F). Manual blood sampling (Figure 3E) and image-derived analyses (Figure 3F) were still possible and comparable to the correct outcomes.
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59701/59701fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative results of continuous blood sampling compared to manual blood sampling. Typical arterial input functions derived from continuous blood sampling compared to manual blood sampling (left column) and continuous blood sampling compared to the image-derived approach (right column) are shown. Panels A-D demonstrate the results of correct implementation of the protocol in two different animals. Panels E and F illustrates a sub-optimal outcome of the measurement. All data shown were corrected for the cross-calibration factor and the background. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59701/59701fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Continuous Blood Sampling in Small Animal Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography Enables the Measurement of the Arterial Input Function at JoVE.com

Continuous Blood Sampling in Small Animal Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography Enables the Measurement of the Arterial Input Function

Here a protocol for continuous blood sampling during PET/CT imaging of rats to measure the arterial input function (AIF) is described. The catheterization, the calibration and setup of the system and the data analysis of the blood radioactivity are demonstrated. The generated data provide input parameters for subsequent bio-kinetic modeling.

For quantitative analysis and bio-kinetic modeling of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) data, the determination of the temporal ...

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8.2K Views.  Rostock University Medical Center. Here a protocol for continuous blood sampling during PET/CT imaging of rats to measure the arterial input function (AIF) is described. The catheterization, the calibration and setup of the system and the data analysis of the blood radioactivity are demonstrated. The generated data provide input parameters for subsequent bio-kinetic modeling.

Video: Continuous Blood Sampling in Small Animal Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography Enables the Measurement of the Arterial Input Function

Basic Surgical Techniques in the G&ouml;ttingen Minipig: Intubation, Bladder Catheterization, Femoral Vessel Catheterization, and Transcardial Perfusion

The emergence of the G&ouml;ttingen minipig in research of topics such as neuroscience, toxicology, diabetes, obesity, and experimental surgery reflects the close resemblance of these animals to human anatomy and physiology 1-6.The size of the G&ouml;ttingen minipig permits the use of surgical equipment and advanced imaging modalities similar to those used in humans 6-8. The aim of this instructional video is to increase the awareness on the value of minipigs in biomedical research, by demonstrating how to perform tracheal intubation, transurethral bladder catheterization, femoral artery and vein catheterization, as well as transcardial perfusion. 
Endotracheal Intubation should be performed whenever a minipig undergoes general anesthesia, because it maintains a patent airway, permits assisted ventilation and protects the airways from aspirates. Transurethral bladder catheterization can provide useful information about about hydration state as well as renal and cardiovascular function during long surgical procedures. Furthermore, urinary catheterization can prevent contamination of delicate medico-technical equipment and painful bladder extension which may harm the animal and unnecessarily influence the experiment due to increased vagal tone and altered physiological parameters. Arterial and venous catheterization is useful for obtaining repeated blood samples and monitoring various physiological parameters. Catheterization of femoral vessels is preferable to catheterization of the neck vessels for ease of access, when performing experiments involving frame-based stereotaxic neurosurgery and brain imaging. When performing vessel catheterization in survival studies, strict aseptic technique must be employed to avoid infections6. Transcardial perfusion is the most effective fixation method, and yields preeminent results when preparing minipig organs for histology and histochemistry2,9. For more information about anesthesia, surgery and experimental techniques in swine in general we refer to Swindle 2007. Supplementary information about premedication and induction of anesthesia, assisted ventilation, analgesia, pre- and postoperative care of G&ouml;ttingen minipigs are available via the internet at <a href="http://www.minipigs.com">http://www.minipigs.com</a>10. For extensive information about porcine anatomy we refer to Nickel et al. Vol. 1-511.

Basic Surgical Techniques in the G&amp;#246;ttingen Minipig: Intubation, Bladder Catheterization, Femoral Vessel Catheterization, and Transcardial Perfusion

The use of domestic and miniature pigs in science has increased significantly in recent years. By demonstrating how to perform intubation, transurethral bladder catheterization, femoral artery and vein catheterization, as well as transcardial perfusion, we aim to further increase the value of G&ouml;ttingen minipigs in biomedical research.

The emergence of the G&ouml;ttingen minipig in research of topics such as neuroscience, toxicology, diabetes, obesity, and experimental surgery reflects ...

Femoral Arterial and Venous Catheterization for Blood Sampling, Drug Administration and Conscious Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Measurements

In multiple fields of study, access to the circulatory system in laboratory studies is necessary. Pharmacological studies in rats using chronically implanted catheters permit a researcher to effectively and humanely administer substances, perform repeated blood sampling and assists in conscious direct measurements of blood pressure and heart rate. Once the catheter is implanted long-term sampling is possible. Patency and catheter life depends on multiple factors including the lock solution used, flushing regimen and catheter material. This video will demonstrate the methodology of femoral artery and venous catheterization of the rat. In addition the video will demonstrate the use of the femoral venous and arterial catheters for blood sampling, drug administration and use of the arterial catheter in taking measurements of blood pressure and heart rate in a conscious freely-moving rat. A tether and harness attached to a swivel system will allow the animal to be housed and have samples taken by the researcher with minimal disruption to the animal. To maintain patency of the catheter, careful daily maintenance of the catheter is required using lock solution (100 U/ml heparinized saline), machine-ground blunt tip syringe needles and the use of syringe filters to minimize potential contamination. With careful aseptic surgical techniques, proper catheter materials and careful catheter maintenance techniques, it is possible to sustain patent catheters and healthy animals for long periods of time (several weeks).

Chronic catheterization of blood vessels in the rat is often required for administration of substances, obtain blood sample over a period of time or for direct conscious blood pressure measurements. Femoral arterial catheterization of the rat and corresponding measurements of blood pressure in the conscious animal will be demonstrated.

In multiple fields of study, access to the circulatory system in laboratory studies is necessary. Pharmacological studies in rats using chronically ...

Quantification of Atherosclerotic Plaque Activity and Vascular Inflammation using [18-F] Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (FDG-PET/CT)

Conventional non-invasive imaging modalities of atherosclerosis such as coronary artery calcium (CAC)1 and carotid intimal medial thickness (C-IMT)2 provide information about the burden of disease. However, despite multiple validation studies of CAC3-5, and C-IMT2,6, these modalities do not accurately assess plaque characteristics7,8, and the composition and inflammatory state of the plaque determine its stability and, therefore, the risk of clinical events9-13.
[18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) imaging using positron-emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) has been extensively studied in oncologic metabolism14,15. Studies using animal models and immunohistochemistry in humans show that FDG-PET/CT is exquisitely sensitive for detecting macrophage activity16, an important source of cellular inflammation in vessel walls. More recently, we17,18 and others have shown that FDG-PET/CT enables highly precise, novel measurements of inflammatory activity of activity of atherosclerotic plaques in large and medium-sized arteries9,16,19,20. FDG-PET/CT studies have many advantages over other imaging modalities: 1) high contrast resolution; 2) quantification of plaque volume and metabolic activity allowing for multi-modal atherosclerotic plaque quantification; 3) dynamic, real-time, in vivo imaging; 4) minimal operator dependence. Finally, vascular inflammation detected by FDG-PET/CT has been shown to predict cardiovascular (CV) events independent of traditional risk factors21,22 and is also highly associated with overall burden of atherosclerosis23. Plaque activity by FDG-PET/CT is modulated by known beneficial CV interventions such as short term (12 week) statin therapy24 as well as longer term therapeutic lifestyle changes (16 months)25.
The current methodology for quantification of FDG uptake in atherosclerotic plaque involves measurement of the standardized uptake value (SUV) of an artery of interest and of the venous blood pool in order to calculate a target to background ratio (TBR), which is calculated by dividing the arterial SUV by the venous blood pool SUV. This method has shown to represent a stable, reproducible phenotype over time, has a high sensitivity for detection of vascular inflammation, and also has high inter-and intra-reader reliability26. Here we present our methodology for patient preparation, image acquisition, and quantification of atherosclerotic plaque activity and vascular inflammation using SUV, TBR, and a global parameter called the metabolic volumetric product (MVP). These approaches may be applied to assess vascular inflammation in various study samples of interest in a consistent fashion as we have shown in several prior publications.9,20,27,28

Quantification of Atherosclerotic Plaque Activity and Vascular Inflammation using [18-F] Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography FDG-PET/CT

There is great need to identify atherosclerosis non-invasively, and here we demonstrate how FDG-PET/CT can be used to detect and quantify atherosclerotic plaque activity and vascular inflammation.

Conventional non-invasive imaging modalities of atherosclerosis such as coronary artery calcium (CAC)1 and carotid intimal medial thickness (C-IMT)2 ...

Protocol for Long Duration Whole Body Hyperthermia in Mice

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body temperature that is observed during fever. The use of hyperthermia as an adjuvant has emerged as a promising procedure for tumor regression in the field of cancer biology. For this purpose, the most important requirement is to have reliable and uniform heating protocols. We have developed a protocol for hyperthermia (whole body) in mice. In this protocol, animals are exposed to cycles of hyperthermia for 90 min followed by a rest period of 15 min. During this period mice have easy access to food and water. High body temperature spikes in the mice during first few hyperthermia exposure cycles are prevented by immobilizing the animal. Additionally, normal saline is administered in first few cycles to minimize the effects of dehydration. This protocol can simulate fever like conditions in mice up to 12-24 hr. We have used 8-12 weeks old BALB/Cj female mice to demonstrate the protocol.

This paper describes a protocol for whole body hyperthermia in mice that can stimulate fever like conditions up to 12-24 hr.

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body ...

Generation and 3-Dimensional Quantitation of Arterial Lesions in Mice Using Optical Projection Tomography

The generation and analysis of vascular lesions in appropriate animal models is a cornerstone of research into cardiovascular disease, generating important information on the pathogenesis of lesion formation and the action of novel therapies. Use of atherosclerosis-prone mice, surgical methods of lesion induction, and dietary modification has dramatically improved understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to disease development and the potential of new treatments.
Classically, analysis of lesions is performed ex vivo using 2-dimensional histological techniques. This article describes application of optical projection tomography (OPT) to 3-dimensional quantitation of arterial lesions. As this technique is non-destructive, it can be used as an adjunct to standard histological and immunohistochemical analyses.
Neointimal lesions were induced by wire-insertion or ligation of the mouse femoral artery whilst atherosclerotic lesions were generated by administration of an atherogenic diet to apoE-deficient mice.
Lesions were examined using OPT imaging of autofluorescent emission followed by complementary histological and immunohistochemical analysis. OPT clearly distinguished lesions from the underlying vascular wall. Lesion size was calculated in 2-dimensional sections using planimetry, enabling calculation of lesion volume and maximal cross-sectional area. Data generated using OPT were consistent with measurements obtained using histology, confirming the accuracy of the technique and its potential as a complement (rather than alternative) to traditional methods of analysis.
This work demonstrates the potential of OPT for imaging atherosclerotic and neointimal lesions. It provides a rapid, much needed ex vivo technique for the routine 3-dimensional quantification of vascular remodelling.

Ex vivo analysis of arterial lesions from animal models of cardiovascular disease classically relies on histological and immunohistochemical techniques. These provide 2-dimensional measurements in 3-dimensional lesions. This manuscript describes the generation of arterial lesions for quantitative analysis in 3-dimensions using optical projection tomography.

The generation and analysis of vascular lesions in appropriate animal models is a cornerstone of research into cardiovascular disease, generating ...

Non-invasive Imaging and Analysis of Cerebral Ischemia in Living Rats Using Positron Emission Tomography with 18F-FDG

Stroke is the third leading cause of death among Americans 65 years of age or older1. The quality of life for patients who suffer from a stroke fails to return to normal in a large majority of patients2, which is mainly due to current lack of clinical treatment for acute stroke. This necessitates understanding the physiological effects of cerebral ischemia on brain tissue over time and is a major area of active research. Towards this end, experimental progress has been made using rats as a preclinical model for stroke, particularly, using non-invasive methods such as 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) coupled with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging3,10,17. Here we present a strategy for inducing cerebral ischemia in rats by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) that mimics focal cerebral ischemia in humans, and imaging its effects over 24 hr using FDG-PET coupled with X-ray computed tomography (CT) with an Albira PET-CT instrument. A VOI template atlas was subsequently fused to the cerebral rat data to enable a unbiased analysis of the brain and its sub-regions4. In addition, a method for 3D visualization of the FDG-PET-CT time course is presented. In summary, we present a detailed protocol for initiating, quantifying, and visualizing an induced ischemic stroke event in a living Sprague-Dawley rat in three dimensions using FDG-PET.

Non-invasive Imaging and Analysis of Cerebral Ischemia in Living Rats Using Positron Emission Tomography with 18F-FDG

Brain damage resulting from cerebral ischemia may be non-invasively imaged and studied in rats using pre-clinical positron emission tomography coupled with the injectable radioactive probe, 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose. Further, the use of modern software tools that include volume of interest (VOI) brain templates dramatically increase the quantitative information gleaned from these studies.

Stroke is the third leading cause of death among Americans 65 years of age or older1. The quality of life for patients who suffer from a stroke fails to ...

Human Brown Adipose Tissue Depots Automatically Segmented by Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography and Registered Magnetic Resonance Images

Reliably differentiating brown adipose tissue (BAT) from other tissues using a non-invasive imaging method is an important step toward studying BAT in humans. Detecting BAT is typically confirmed by the uptake of the injected radioactive tracer 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) into adipose tissue depots, as measured by positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET-CT) scans after exposing the subject to cold stimulus. Fat-water separated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the ability to distinguish BAT without the use of a radioactive tracer. To date, MRI of BAT in adult humans has not been co-registered with cold-activated PET-CT. Therefore, this protocol uses 18F-FDG PET-CT scans to automatically generate a BAT mask, which is then applied to co-registered MRI scans of the same subject. This approach enables measurement of quantitative MRI properties of BAT without manual segmentation. BAT masks are created from two PET-CT scans: after exposure for 2 hr to either thermoneutral (TN) (24 &#176;C) or cold-activated (CA) (17 &#176;C) conditions. The TN and CA PET-CT scans are registered, and the PET standardized uptake and CT Hounsfield values are used to create a mask containing only BAT. CA and TN MRI scans are also acquired on the same subject and registered to the PET-CT scans in order to establish quantitative MRI properties within the automatically defined BAT mask. An advantage of this approach is that the segmentation is completely automated and is based on widely accepted methods for identification of activated BAT (PET-CT). The quantitative MRI properties of BAT established using this protocol can serve as the basis for an MRI-only BAT examination that avoids the radiation associated with PET-CT.

The method presented here uses 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET-CT) and fat-water separated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), each scanned following 2 hr exposure to thermoneutral (24 &#176;C) and cold conditions (17 &#176;C) in order to map brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult human subjects.

Reliably differentiating brown adipose tissue (BAT) from other tissues using a non-invasive imaging method is an important step toward studying BAT in ...

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction (NeMO) in Female Small Rodents

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal model to investigate bladder remodeling in pBOO are female rodents undergoing partial obstruction at the proximal urethra. Variability in the degree of obstruction and animal mortality are major concerns with proximal obstruction. Furthermore, dissecting around the proximal urethra and bladder neck jeopardizes bladder innervation.
We developed a nerve-sparing mid-urethral obstruction (NeMO) model for pBOO avoiding the disadvantages of the traditional model. We approached the urethra just inferior to the pubic symphysis, which obviated the need for laparotomy as well as for dissection in this area; also, the striated urethral sphincter remained untouched. We performed NeMO in female Sprague-Dawley rats (12 obstructions, 6 sham animals) as well as in female C57/bl6 mice (20 obstructions, 18 sham animals). After two weeks, we evaluated bladder function, bladder mass, and body mass.
We had no mortalities among obstructed- or sham-operated female rats; as described for the traditional proximal pBOO-method, we tied the suture around the proximal urethra and a temporarily placed 0.9 mm metal rod. NeMO induced an 85% increase in bladder mass after two weeks, average residual urine volume was 0.4 mL in partially obstructed rats while only 0.03 mL in sham animals. In mice, we tested 3 sizes of cannulas that we placed along the urethra when tying the suture. We found that using a 27-gauge cannula resulted in over 50% animal mortality; placing the 25-gauge cannula did not yield the desired response in increasing bladder mass; utilizing a 26-gauge cannula yielded favorable results with minimal animal mortality (1/8) yet a significant 2-fold increase in bladder mass.

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction NeMO in Female Small Rodents

Traditional modeling of partial bladder outlet obstruction in rodents is fraught with animal mortality. A denervation injury from dissection around the proximal urethra and bladder neck is also of major concern. We developed and evaluated a safe and reliable mid-urethral obstruction model, avoiding the shortcomings of the traditional model.

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal ...

Long-Term Continuous Measurement of Renal Blood Flow in Conscious Rats

The kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis of body fluids. The regulation of renal blood flow (RBF) is essential to the vital functions of filtration and metabolism in kidney function. Many acute studies have been carried out in anesthetized animals to measure RBF under various conditions to determine mechanisms responsible for the regulation of kidney perfusion. However, for technical reasons, it has not been possible to measure RBF continuously (24 h/day) in unrestrained unanesthetized rats over prolonged periods. These methods allow the continuous determination of RBF over many weeks while also simultaneously recording blood pressure (BP) with implanted catheters (fluid-filled or by telemetry). RBF monitoring is carried out with rats placed in a circular servo-controlled rat cage that enables the unrestrained movement of the rat throughout the study. At the same time, the tangling of cables from the flow probe and arterial catheters is prevented. Rats are first instrumented with an ultrasonic flow probe placement on the left renal artery and an arterial catheter implanted in the right femoral artery. These are routed subcutaneously to the nape of the neck, and connected to the flowmeter and pressure transducer, respectively, to measure RBF and BP. Following surgical implantation, rats are immediately placed in the cage to recover for at least one week and stabilize the ultrasonic probe recordings. Urine collection is also feasible in this system. The surgical and post-surgical procedures for continuous monitoring are demonstrated in this protocol.

The present protocol describes a long-term continuous measurement of renal blood flow in conscious rats and simultaneously recording blood pressure with implanted catheters (fluid-filled or by telemetry).

The kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis of body fluids. The regulation of renal blood flow (RBF) is essential to the vital ...

High-Resolution Cardiac Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography for Small Animals

Positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) are among the most employed diagnostic imaging techniques, and both serve in understanding cardiac function and metabolism. In preclinical research, dedicated scanners with high sensitivity and high spatio-temporal resolution are employed, designed to cope with the demanding technological requirements posed by the small heart size and very high heart rates of mice and rats. In this paper, a bimodal cardiac PET/CT imaging protocol for experimental mouse and/or rat models of cardiac diseases is described, from animal preparation and image acquisition and reconstruction to image processing and visualization.
In particular, the 18F-labeled fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG)-PET scan allows for the measurement and visualization of glucose metabolism in the different segments of the left ventricle (LV). Polar maps are convenient tools to display this information. The CT part consists of a time-resolved 3D reconstruction of the entire heart (4D-CT) using retrospective gating without electrocardiography (ECG) leads, allowing the morphofunctional evaluation of the LV and the subsequent quantification of the most important cardiac function parameters, such as ejection fraction (EF) and stroke volume (SV). Using an integrated PET/CT scanner, this protocol can be executed within the same anesthesia induction without the need to reposition the animal between different scanners. Hence, PET/CT can be seen as a comprehensive tool for the morphofunctional and metabolic evaluation of the heart in several small animal models of cardiac diseases.

Here, we present an experimental imaging protocol for the quantification of cardiac function and morphology using high-resolution positron emission tomography/computed tomography for small animals. Both mice and rats are considered, discussing the different requirements of computed tomography contrast agents for the two species.

Positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) are among the most employed diagnostic imaging techniques, and both serve in understanding ...