This work was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant&nbsp;No. 21776095), the Guangzhou Science and Technology Key Program (Grant&nbsp;No. 201804020048), and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Technology (Grant No. 2008A060301002). We thank LetPub (www.letpub.com) for its linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript.

1. Exfoliation of graphite in a liquid phase
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of reagents
	<ol>
		<li>In a dry clean flat-bottom flask, add 20 g of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and then add 1,000 mL of distilled water. 
		NOTE: If the suspension was not processed to satisfaction, the step could be repeated to obtain an additional suspension.</li>
		<li>Gently swirl the flask until the PVA fully dissolves. 
		CAUTION: PVA is harmful to humans; thus, protective gloves and surgical&#160;masks should be used.</li>
		<li>Add 50 g of graphite powder to the flat-bottom flask, and gently swirl the flask until the graphite powder fully disperses in the suspension.</li>
		<li>Transfer 500 mL of the resulting suspension to a 500 mL beaker.</li>
		<li>Place the beaker under a shear mixer, positioning the beaker near the center of the mixing vessel to prevent the formation of a vortex. 
		NOTE: All chemical reagents used are of analytical grade.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Equipment setup
	<ol>
		<li>Lower the mixing head to its lowest position (30 mm from the base plane).</li>
		<li>Make a water bath by filling a 5,000 mL beaker with room temperature (25 &#176;C) water and position the 500 mL beaker in the bath. Change the water every 30 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Exfoliation
	<ol>
		<li>Start the mixer and increase the speed gradually to 4,500 rpm; mix at this speed for 120 min.</li>
		<li>Perform the exfoliation step five times for five predetermined times: 40 min, 60 min, 80 min, 100 min, and 120 min. The mixing time determines the lower lateral size limit of the graphene nanoflakes.</li>
		<li>Collect the suspensions after each exfoliation step. Each exfoliation step will generate a 500 mL suspension. Label each suspension with the exfoliation time for further treatment.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the collected suspension at 140 x g for 45 min to remove the unexfoliated graphite.</li>
		<li>Collect the top 80% of the supernatant from each centrifuge tube for an additional centrifugation step.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Centrifugation
<ol>
	<li>Centrifuge the resulting suspension at 8,951 x g for 45 min.</li>
	<li>Collect the upper 50% of the supernatant in the centrifuge tube, and label the sample with a number.</li>
	<li>Recycle the sediment on the bottom of the centrifuge tube from step 2.2. Add the PVA/water reagent prepared in step 1.1.1 to the sediments and shake the tube vigorously by hand until the sediment is well dispersed in the suspension.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the suspension at 8,951 x g for 45 min; collect the upper 80% for further measurements.</li>
	<li>Repeat the abovementioned centrifugation step four times with four different centrifugation speeds: 5,035 x g, 2,238 x g, 560 x g, and 140 x g. The centrifugation speed determines the upper lateral size limit of the graphene nanoflakes. 
	NOTE: The protocol can be paused here.</li>
</ol>
3. Concentration measurements of the resulting nanofluids
<ol>
	<li>Obtain absorption spectra at a wavelength of 660 nm using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the PVA/water solution prepared in step 1.1.1 to calibrate a UV-Vis spectrometer; set the PVA/water concentrations to 0%.</li>
		<li>Add the PVA/water suspension to a dry clean sample cell with a path length of 10 mm and obtain a readout using the manufacturer&#8217;s software. Click the obtain button to get the measurement results graph and save the results.</li>
		<li>Repeat step 3.1.2 for each of the different samples prepared in step 2.5. 
		NOTE: The sample cell must be cleaned carefully with distilled water and dried before use each time.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the graphene weight in the resulting suspension.
	<ol>
		<li>Vacuum filter the 100 mL sample suspension using a nylon membrane with a pore size of 0.2 &#181;m.</li>
		<li>Wash the membrane film with approximately 1,000 mL of water; repeat this step three times until all the solids are washed from the membrane.</li>
		<li>Determine the washed water mass with a high-precision microbalance to obtain the weight of the solids in the 100 mL suspension. 
		NOTE: The weights include both the weight of the graphene nanoflakes and the PVA polymers.</li>
		<li>Analyze the water with thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)18 to determine the PVA concentration.</li>
		<li>Calculate the mean extinction coefficient values of the PVA-stabilized system: 
		<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/59740/59740equ01.jpg" /> 
		where A is the absorbance measured at 660 nm using UV-Vis spectroscopy, and I is the path length travelled by the UV light during the measurement; the relationship between the absorbance A and the graphene concentration CG is linear. The extinction coefficient &#949; is the slope of the curve plotted for the absorbance A as a function of the graphene concentration CG. When the extinction coefficient &#949; is determined, CG can be determined by the absorbance A.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Adjusting the concentration of resulting nanofluids
<ol>
	<li>Vacuum-filter the suspensions using a nylon membrane with a pore size of 0.2 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Dry the membrane at room temperature for over 12 h.</li>
	<li>Subsequently, rinse the film with hot deionized water.</li>
	<li>Dry the deionized water under a vacuum for 24 h to obtain the graphene nanosheets. 
	NOTE: The production rate of graphene is approximately 1 mg/mL. If the desired concentration is lower than this, then it is easy to obtain it only by adding PVA/water. If the desired concentration is higher than 1%, then the drying process is necessary. Here, we demonstrate a condition with a desired concentration of 2%.</li>
	<li>Add the PVA/water solution or graphene nanosheets to adjust the concentration.</li>
	<li>If the desired concentration is less than the production rate, add the PVA/water solution prepared in step 1.1.1 to obtain the desired concentration.</li>
</ol>
5. Measuring the size distributions with dynamic light scattering
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the nanoparticle analyzer and adjust the detector to C label. Place the sample suspension on the test panel.</li>
	<li>Open the correlator control window software.</li>
	<li>Click Non-Negative Constrained least square: Multiple Pass in the menu.</li>
	<li>Set the elapsed time to 2 min.</li>
	<li>Select water as the solvent type.</li>
	<li>Change the diameter of the detector to 100 nm.</li>
	<li>Click the test button to obtain the readout and save the results.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 5.1-5.7 for each of the samples prepared after step 4.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

We have proposed a methodology for synthesizing graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions. The method combines two procedures: exfoliation and centrifugation. Exfoliation controls the lower size limit of the nanoparticles, and centrifugation controls the upper size limit of the nanoparticles.
Although we employed liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite to produce graphene nanoparticles, the following modifications to the protocol should be considered. Additional exfoliation p...

Traditional methods used to synthesize graphene nanofluids often use sonication to disperse graphene powder1 in fluids, and sonication has been proven to change the size distribution of graphene nanoparticles2. Since the thermal conductivity of graphene depends on the flake length3,4, the synthesis of graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions is vital to heat-transfer applications. Controlled centrifugation has been successfully applied to liquid exfoliated graphene dispersions to separate suspensions into fractions with different mean flake sizes5,6. Different terminal velocities used in centrifugation lead to different critical settling particle sizes7. The terminal velocity could be used to eliminate large graphene nanoparticles8.
Recently, size-controllable methods used to synthesize graphene via liquid-phase exfoliation have been introduced to overcome the fundamental problems encountered by conventional methods9,10,11,12,13. Liquid phase exfoliation of graphite has been proven to be an effective way to produce graphene suspensions14,15,16, and the underlying mechanism shows that the process parameters are related to the lower limits of the graphene nanoparticles size distributions. The graphene nanofluids were synthesized by the liquid exfoliation of the graphite with the help of surfactants17.While the lower limits of the graphene nanoparticle size distribution could be controlled by adjusting the parameters during the exfoliation, less attention is paid to the upper limits of the graphene nanoparticle size distribution.
The goal of this work is to develop a protocol that can be used to synthesize graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions. Because exfoliation is responsible only for the lower size limit of the resulting graphene nanoflakes, additional centrifugation is introduced to control the upper size limit of the resulting graphene nanoflakes. However, the proposed method is not specific to graphene and could be appropriate for any other layered compounds that cannot be synthesized using traditional methods.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Beaker</td>
			<td>China Jiangsu Mingtai Education Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>500 mL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beaker</td>
			<td>China Jiangsu Mingtai Education Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>5000 mL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
			<td>Guangzhou Yafei Water Treatment Equipment Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>analytical grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electronic balance</td>
			<td>Shanghai Puchun Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>JEa10001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter membrane</td>
			<td>China Tianjin Jinteng Experiment Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>0.2 micron</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphite powder</td>
			<td>Tianjin Dengke chemical reagent Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>analytical grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hand gloves</td>
			<td>China Jiangsu Mingtai Education Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory shear mixer</td>
			<td>Shanghai Specimen and Model Factory</td>
			<td>jrj-300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Long neck flat bottom flask</td>
			<td>China Jiangsu Mingtai Education Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>1000 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanoparticle analyzer</td>
			<td>HORIBA, Ltd.</td>
			<td>SZ-100Z</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVA</td>
			<td>Shanghai Yingjia Industrial Development Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>1788</td>
			<td>analytical grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Raman spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>HORIBA, Ltd.</td>
			<td>Horiba LabRam 2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scanning electron microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>LEO1530VP</td>
			<td>SEM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical mask</td>
			<td>China Jiangsu Mingtai Education Equipments Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>for one-time use</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer</td>
			<td>German NETZSCH Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>NETZSCH TG 209 F1 Libra</td>
			<td>TGA analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transmission electron microscope</td>
			<td>Japan Electron Optics Laboratory Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>JEM-1400plus</td>
			<td>TEM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV-Vis spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies, Inc.+BB2:B18</td>
			<td>Varian Cary 60</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
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synthesis of graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions

A method for synthesizing graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions is presented. Graphene nanoflakes can be obtained by the exfoliation of graphite in the liquid phase, and the exfoliation time is used to control the lower limits of the graphene nanoflake size distributions. Centrifugation is successfully used to control the upper limits of the nanoparticle size distributions. The objective of this work is to combine exfoliation and centrifugation to control the graphene nanoflake size distributions in the resulting suspensions.

The existence of graphene nanosheets can be validated by various characteristic techniques. Figure 1 shows the results of the UV-Vis measurement for the various flake size distributions produced by the abovementioned protocol. The spectra absorbance peak obtained at a wavelength of 270 nm is evidence of the graphene flakes. Different absorbances correspond to different concentrations. The lowest absorbance observed corresponds to the highest centrifugation speed. The spectra strongly confirm...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis of Graphene Nanofluids with Controllable Flake Size Distributions at JoVE.com

Synthesis of Graphene Nanofluids with Controllable Flake Size Distributions

A method for synthesizing graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions is presented.

A method for synthesizing graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions is presented. Graphene nanoflakes can be obtained by the ...

synthesis-graphene-nanofluids-with-controllable-flake-size

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6.6K Views.  South China University of Technology. A method for synthesizing graphene nanofluids with controllable flake size distributions is presented.

Video: Synthesis of Graphene Nanofluids with Controllable Flake Size Distributions

Template Directed Synthesis of Plasmonic Gold Nanotubes with Tunable IR Absorbance

A nearly parallel array of pores can be produced by anodizing aluminum foils in acidic environments1, 2. Applications of anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes have been under development since the 1990's and have become a common method to template the synthesis of high aspect ratio nanostructures, mostly by electrochemical growth or pore-wetting. Recently, these membranes have become commercially available in a wide range of pore sizes and densities, leading to an extensive library of functional nanostructures being synthesized from AAO membranes. These include composite nanorods, nanowires and nanotubes made of metals, inorganic materials or polymers 3-10. Nanoporous membranes have been used to synthesize nanoparticle and nanotube arrays that perform well as refractive index sensors, plasmonic biosensors, or surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) substrates 11-16, as well as a wide range of other fields such as photo-thermal heating 17, permselective transport 18, 19, catalysis 20, microfluidics 21, and electrochemical sensing 22, 23. Here, we report a novel procedure to prepare gold nanotubes in AAO membranes. Hollow nanostructures have potential application in plasmonic and SERS sensing, and we anticipate these gold nanotubes will allow for high sensitivity and strong plasmon signals, arising from decreased material dampening 15.

Solution-suspendable gold nanotubes with controlled dimensions can be synthesized by electrochemical deposition in porous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes using a hydrophobic polymer core. Gold nanotubes and nanotube arrays hold promise for applications in plasmonic biosensing, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, photo-thermal heating, ionic and molecular transport, microfluidics, catalysis and electrochemical sensing.

A nearly parallel array of pores can be produced by anodizing aluminum foils in acidic environments1, 2. Applications of anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) ...

A Simple Method for the Size Controlled Synthesis of Stable Oligomeric Clusters of Gold Nanoparticles under Ambient Conditions

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like oligomeric clusters of these yellow nanoparticles of narrow size distribution are synthesized under ambient conditions via two methods. The delay-time method controls the number of subunits in the oligoclusters by varying the time between the addition of HAuCl4 to alkaline solution and the subsequent addition of reducing agent, NaSCN. The yellow oligoclusters produced range in size from ~3 to ~25 nm. This size range can be further extended by an add-on method utilizing hydroxylated gold chloride (Na+[Au(OH4-x)Clx]-) to auto-catalytically increase the number of subunits in the as-synthesized oligocluster nanoparticles, providing a total range of 3 nm to 70 nm. The crude oligocluster preparations display narrow size distributions and do not require further fractionation for most purposes. The oligoclusters formed can be concentrated &#62;300 fold without aggregation and the crude reaction mixtures remain stable for weeks without further processing. Because these oligomeric clusters can be concentrated before derivatization they allow expensive derivatizing agents to be used economically. In addition, we present two models by which predictions of particle size can be made with great accuracy.

We describe a simple method for producing highly stable oligomeric clusters of gold nanoparticles via the reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN). The oligoclusters have a narrow size distribution and can be produced with a wide range of sizes and surface coats.

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Fe-doped Aluminosilicate Nanotubes with Enhanced Electron Conductive Properties

The goal of the protocol is to synthesize Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes of the imogolite type with the formula (OH)3Al2-xFexO3SiOH. Doping with Fe aims at lowering the band gap of imogolite, an insulator with the chemical formula (OH)3Al2O3SiOH, and at modifying its adsorption properties towards azo-dyes, an important class of organic pollutants of both wastewater and groundwater.
Fe-doped nanotubes are obtained in two ways: by direct synthesis, where FeCl3 is added to an aqueous mixture of the Si and Al precursors, and by post-synthesis loading, where preformed nanotubes are put in contact with a FeCl3&#8226;6H2O aqueous solution. In both synthesis methods, isomorphic substitution of Al3+ by Fe3+ occurs, preserving the nanotube structure. Isomorphic substitution is indeed limited to a mass fraction of ~1.0% Fe, since at a higher Fe content (i.e., a mass fraction of 1.4% Fe), Fe2O3 clusters form, especially when the loading procedure is adopted. The physicochemical properties of the materials are studied by means of X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), N2 sorption isotherms at -196 &#176;C, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), diffuse reflectance (DR) UV-Vis spectroscopy, and &#950;-potential measurements. The most relevant result is the possibility to replace Al3+ ions (located on the outer surface of the nanotubes) by post-synthesis loading on preformed imogolite without perturbing the delicate hydrolysis equilibria occurring during nanotube formation. During the loading procedure, an anionic exchange occurs, where Al3+ ions on the outer surface of the nanotubes are replaced by Fe3+ ions. In Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes, isomorphic substitution of Al3+ by Fe3+ is found to affect the band gap of doped imogolite. Nonetheless, Fe3+ sites on the outer surface of nanotubes are able to coordinate organic moieties, like the azo-dye Acid Orange 7, through a ligand-displacement mechanism occurring in an aqueous solution.

Here, we present a protocol to synthesize and characterize Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes. The materials are obtained by either sol-gel synthesis upon addition of FeCl3&#8226;6H2O to the mixture containing the Si and Al precursors or by post-synthesis ionic exchange of preformed aluminosilicate nanotubes.

The goal of the protocol is to synthesize Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes of the imogolite type with the formula (OH)3Al2-xFexO3SiOH. Doping with Fe ...

Chemical Precipitation Method for the Synthesis of Nb2O5 Modified Bulk Nickel Catalysts with High Specific Surface Area

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of NixNb1-xO catalysts with sponge-like and fold-like nanostructures. By varying the Nb:Ni ratio, a series of NixNb1-xO nanoparticles with different atomic compositions (x = 0.03, 0.08, 0.15, and 0.20) have been prepared by chemical precipitation. These NixNb1-xO catalysts are characterized by X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The study revealed the sponge-like and fold-like appearance of Ni0.97Nb0.03O and Ni0.92Nb0.08O on the NiO surface, and the larger surface area of these NixNb1-xO catalysts, compared with the bulk NiO. Maximum surface area of 173 m2/g can be obtained for Ni0.92Nb0.08O catalysts. In addition, the catalytic hydroconversion of lignin-derived compounds using the synthesized Ni0.92Nb0.08O catalysts have been investigated.

Chemical Precipitation Method for the Synthesis of Nb2O5 Modified Bulk Nickel Catalysts with High Specific Surface Area

A protocol for the synthesis of sponge-like and fold-like Ni1-xNbxO nanoparticles by chemical precipitation is presented.

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of NixNb1-xO catalysts with sponge-like and fold-like nanostructures. By varying the Nb:Ni ratio, a series of ...

Preparation and Characterization of C60/Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures

Physical thermal deposition in a high vacuum environment is a clean and controllable method for fabricating novel molecular nanostructures on graphene. We present methods for depositing and passively manipulating C60 molecules on rippled graphene that advance the pursuit of realizing applications involving 1D C60/graphene hybrid structures. The techniques applied in this exposition are geared towards high vacuum systems with preparation areas capable of supporting molecular deposition as well as thermal annealing of the samples. We focus on C60 deposition at low pressure using a homemade Knudsen cell connected to a scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) system. The number of molecules deposited is regulated by controlling the temperature of the Knudsen cell and the deposition time. One-dimensional (1D) C60 chain structures with widths of two to three molecules can be prepared via tuning of the experimental conditions. The surface mobility of the C60 molecules increases with annealing temperature allowing them to move within the periodic potential of the rippled graphene. Using this mechanism, it is possible to control the transition of 1D C60 chain structures to a hexagonal close packed quasi-1D stripe structure.

Preparation and Characterization of C60/Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures

Here we present a protocol for the fabrication of C60/graphene hybrid nanostructures by physical thermal evaporation. Particularly, the proper manipulation of deposition and annealing conditions allow the control over the creation of 1D and quasi 1D C60 structures on rippled graphene.

Physical thermal deposition in a high vacuum environment is a clean and controllable method for fabricating novel molecular nanostructures on graphene. We ...

Synthesis of Substrate-Bound Au Nanowires Via an Active Surface Growth Mechanism

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a challenge, as it requires asymmetric growth of symmetric crystals. Here, we report a distinctive synthesis of substrate-bound Au nanowires. This template-free synthesis employs thiolated ligands and substrate adsorption to achieve the continuous asymmetric deposition of Au in solution at ambient conditions. The thiolated ligand prevented the Au deposition on the exposed surface of the seeds, so the Au deposition only occurs at the interface between the Au seeds and the substrate. The side of the newly deposited Au nanowires is immediately covered with the thiolated ligand, while the bottom facing the substrate remains ligand-free and active for the next round of Au deposition. We further demonstrate that this Au nanowire growth can be induced on various substrates, and different thiolated ligands can be used to regulate the surface chemistry of the nanowires. The diameter of the nanowires can also be controlled with mixed ligands, in which another &#34;bad&#34; ligand could turn on the lateral growth. With the understanding of the mechanism, Au nanowire-based nanostructures can be designed and synthesized.

We report a solution-based method to synthesize substrate-bound Au nanowires. By tuning the molecular ligands used during the synthesis, the Au nanowires can be grown from various substrates with different surface properties. Au nanowire-based nanostructures can also be synthesized by adjusting the reaction parameters.

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a ...

Synthesis and Structure Determination of &#181;-Conotoxin PIIIA Isomers with Different Disulfide Connectivities

Peptides with a high number of cysteines are usually influenced regarding the three-dimensional structure by their disulfide connectivity. It is thus highly important to avoid undesired disulfide bond formation during peptide synthesis, because it may result in a completely different peptide structure, and consequently altered bioactivity. However, the correct formation of multiple disulfide bonds in a peptide is difficult to obtain by using standard self-folding methods such as conventional buffer oxidation protocols, because several disulfide connectivities can be formed. This protocol represents an advanced strategy required for the targeted synthesis of multiple disulfide-bridged peptides which cannot be synthesized via buffer oxidation in high quality and quantity. The study demonstrates the application of a distinct protecting group strategy for the synthesis of all possible 3-disulfide-bonded peptide isomers of &#181;-conotoxin PIIIA in a targeted way. The peptides are prepared by Fmoc-based solid phase peptide synthesis using a protecting group strategy for defined disulfide bond formation. The respective pairs of cysteines are protected with trityl (Trt), acetamidomethyl (Acm), and tert-butyl (tBu) protecting groups to make sure that during every oxidation step only the required cysteines are deprotected and linked. In addition to the targeted synthesis, a combination of several analytical methods is used to clarify the correct folding and generation of the desired peptide structures. The comparison of the different 3-disulfide-bonded isomers indicates the importance of accurate determination and knowledge of the disulfide connectivity for the calculation of the three-dimensional structure and for interpretation of the biological activity of the peptide isomers. The analytical characterization includes the exact disulfide bond elucidation via tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) analysis which is performed with partially reduced and alkylated derivatives of the intact peptide isomer produced by an adapted protocol. Furthermore, the peptide structures are determined using 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments and the knowledge obtained from MS/MS analysis.

Synthesis and Structure Determination of &amp;#181;-Conotoxin PIIIA Isomers with Different Disulfide Connectivities

Cysteine-rich peptides fold into distinct three-dimensional structures depending on their disulfide connectivity. Targeted synthesis of individual disulfide isomers is required when buffer oxidation does not lead to the desired disulfide connectivity. The protocol deals with the selective synthesis of 3-disulfide-bonded peptides and their structural analysis using NMR and MS/MS studies.

Peptides with a high number of cysteines are usually influenced regarding the three-dimensional structure by their disulfide connectivity. It is thus ...

Preparation of Graphene-Supported Microwell Liquid Cells for In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy

The fabrication and preparation of graphene-supported microwell liquid cells (GSMLCs) for in situ electron microscopy is presented in a stepwise protocol. The versatility of the GSMLCs is demonstrated in the context of a study about etching and growth dynamics of gold nanostructures from a HAuCl4 precursor solution. GSMLCs combine the advantages of conventional silicon- and graphene-based liquid cells by offering reproducible well depths together with facile cell manufacturing and handling of the specimen under investigation. The GSMLCs are fabricated on a single silicon substrate which drastically reduces the complexity of the manufacturing process compared to two-wafer-based liquid cell designs. Here, no bonding or alignment process steps are required. Furthermore, the enclosed liquid volume can be tailored to the respective experimental requirements by simply adjusting the thickness of a silicon nitride layer. This enables a significant reduction of window bulging in the electron microscope vacuum. Finally, a state-of-the-art quantitative evaluation of single particle tracking and dendrite formation in liquid cell experiments using only open source software is presented.

Preparation of Graphene-Supported Microwell Liquid Cells for In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy

A protocol for preparation of graphene-supported microwell liquid cells for in situ electron microscopy of gold nanocrystals from HAuCl4 precursor solution is presented. Furthermore, an analysis routine is presented to quantify observed etching and growth dynamics.

The fabrication and preparation of graphene-supported microwell liquid cells (GSMLCs) for in situ electron microscopy is presented in a stepwise protocol. ...

Synthesis of Aptamer-PEI-g-PEG Modified Gold Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin for Targeted Drug Delivery

Due to drug resistance and toxicity in healthy cells, use of doxorubicin (DOX) has been limited in clinical cancer therapy. This protocol describes the designing of poly(ethylenimine) grafted with polyethylene glycol (PEI-g-PEG) copolymer functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with loaded aptamer (AS1411) and DOX through amide reactions. AS1411 is specifically bonded with targeted nucleolin receptors on cancer cells so that DOX targets cancer cells instead of healthy cells. First, PEG is carboxylated, then grafted to branched PEI to obtain a PEI-g-PEG copolymer, which is confirmed by 1H NMR analysis. Next, PEI-g-PEG copolymer coated gold nanoparticles (PEI-g-PEG@AuNPs) are synthesized, and DOX and AS1411 are covalently bonded to AuNPs gradually via amide reactions. The diameter of the prepared AS1411-g-DOX-g-PEI-g-PEG@AuNPs is ~39.9 nm, with a zeta potential of -29.3 mV, indicating that the nanoparticles are stable in water and cell medium. Cell cytotoxicity assays show that the newly designed DOX loaded AuNPs are able to kill cancer cells (A549). This synthesis demonstrates the delicate arrangement of PEI-g-PEG copolymers, aptamers, and DOX on AuNPs that are achieved by sequential amide reactions. Such aptamer-PEI-g-PEG functionalized AuNPs provide a promising platform for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy.

In this protocol, doxorubicin-loaded AS1411-g-PEI-g-PEG modified gold nanoparticles are synthesized via three-step amide reactions. Then, doxorubicin is loaded and delivered to target cancer cells for cancer therapy.

Due to drug resistance and toxicity in healthy cells, use of doxorubicin (DOX) has been limited in clinical cancer therapy. This protocol describes the ...

Construction of Cyclic Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Enhanced Penetration of Biological Barriers

Cancer has been a grand challenge in global health. However, the complex tumor microenvironment generally limits the access of therapeutics to deeper tumor cells, leading to tumor recurrence. To conquer the limited penetration of biological barriers, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been discovered with excellent membrane translocation ability and have emerged as useful molecular transporters for delivering various cargoes into cells. However, conventional linear CPPs generally show compromised proteolytic stability, which limits their permeability across biological barriers. Thus, the development of novel molecular transporters that can penetrate biological barriers and exhibit enhanced proteolytic stability is highly desired to promote drug delivery efficiency in biomedical applications. We have previously synthesized a panel of short cyclic CPPs with aromatic crosslinks, which exhibited superior permeability in cancer cells and tissues compared to their linear counterparts. Here, a concise protocol is described for the synthesis of the fluorescently labeled cyclic polyarginine R8 peptide and its linear counterpart, as well as key steps for investigating their cell permeability.

This protocol describes the synthesis of cyclic cell-penetrating peptides with aromatic cross-links and the evaluation of their permeability across biological barriers.

Cancer has been a grand challenge in global health. However, the complex tumor microenvironment generally limits the access of therapeutics to deeper ...