This article was made possible by NPRP grant #6-463-2-189 from the Qatar National Research and MOP grant #81280 from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Several steps are critical in performing these experiments to study human postural control. These steps are associated with the correct measurement of the signals and include: 1) Correct alignment of the shank ankle axis of rotation to that of the pedals, for the correct measurement of ankle torques. 2) Correct set-up of the range finders to ensure they work in their range and are not saturated during the experiments. 3) Measurement of EMG with good quality and minimal cross talk. 4) Application of appropriate perturbati...

Human postural control is realized through complex interactions between the central nervous and musculoskeletal systems1. The human body in standing is inherently unstable, subject to a variety of internal (e.g., respiration, heartbeat) and external (e.g., gravity) perturbations. Stability is achieved by a distributed controller with central, reflex, and intrinsic components (Figure 1).
Postural control is achieved by: an active controller, mediated by the central nervous system (CNS) and spinal cord, which changes muscle activation; and an intrinsic stiffness controller that resists joint movement with no change in muscle activation (Figure 1). The central controller uses sensory information to generate descending commands that produce corrective muscle forces to stabilize the body. Sensory information is transduced by the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems. Specifically, the somatosensory system generates information regarding the support surface and joint angles; vision provides information regarding the environment; and the vestibular system generates information regarding the head angular velocity, linear acceleration, and orientation with respect to gravity. The central, closed-loop controller operates with long delays that may be destabilizing2. The second element of the active controller is reflex stiffness, which generates muscle activity with short latency and produces torques resisting joint movement.
There is a latency associated with both components of active controller; consequently, joint intrinsic stiffness, which acts with no delay, plays an important role in postural control3. Intrinsic stiffness is generated by passive visco-elastic properties of contracting muscles, soft tissues and inertial properties of the limbs, which generates resistive torques instantaneously in response to any joint movement4. The role of the joint stiffness (intrinsic and reflex stiffness) in postural control is not clearly understood, since it changes with operating conditions, defined by muscle activation4,5,6 and joint position4,7,8, both of which change with the body sway, inherent to standing.
Identifying the roles of the central controller and joint stiffness in postural control is important, as it provides the basis for: diagnosing the etiology of balance impairments; the design of targeted interventions for patients; assessment of the risk of falls; the development of strategies for fall prevention in the elderly; and the design of assistive devices such as orthotics and prosthetics. However, it is difficult, because the different sub-systems act together and only the overall resulting body kinematics, joint torques, and muscle electromyography can be measured.
Therefore, it is essential to develop experimental and analytical methods that use the measurable postural variables to evaluate each subsystem&#8217;s contribution. A technical difficulty is that the measurement of postural variables is done in closed-loop. As a result, the inputs and outputs (cause and effect) are interrelated. Consequently, it is necessary to: a) apply external perturbations (as inputs) to evoke postural reactions in responses (as outputs), and b) employ specialized mathematical methods to identify system models and disentangle cause and effect9.
The present article focuses on postural control when an ankle strategy is used, that is, when the movements occur primarily about the ankle joint. In this condition, upper body and lower limbs move together, consequently, the body can be modeled as a single-link inverted pendulum in sagittal plane10. The ankle strategy is used when the support surface is firm and the perturbations are small1,11.
A standing apparatus capable of applying appropriate mechanical (proprioceptive) and visual sensory perturbations and recording the body kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activities has been developed in our laboratory12. The device provides the experimental environment needed to study the role of ankle stiffness, central control mechanisms, and their interactions by generating postural responses using visual or/and somatosensory stimuli. It is also possible to extend the device to study the role of vestibular system by the application of direct electrical stimulation to the mastoid processes, that can generate a sensation of head velocity and evoke postural responses12,13.
Others have also developed similar devices to study human postural control, where linear piezo electric actuators11, rotary electrical motors14,15, and linear electrical motors16,17,18 were used to apply mechanical perturbations to ankle in standing. More complex devices also have been developed to study multi-segment postural control, where it is possible to apply multiple perturbations to ankle and hip joints simultaneously19,20.
Standing apparatus
Two servo-controlled electrohydraulic rotary actuators move two pedals to apply controlled perturbations of ankle position. The actuators can generate large torques (&#62;500 Nm) needed for postural control; this is especially important in cases such as forward lean, where the body&#8217;s center of mass is far (anterior) from ankle axis of rotation, resulting in large values of ankle torque for postural control.
Each rotary actuator is controlled by a separate proportional servo valve, using pedal position feedback, measured by a high-performance potentiometer on the actuator shaft (Table of Materials). The controller is implemented using a MATLAB-based xPC real-time, digital signal processing system. The actuator/servo-valve together have a bandwidth of more than 40 Hz, much larger than bandwidth of the overall postural control system, ankle joint stiffness, and the central controller21.
Virtual reality device and environment
A virtual reality (VR) headset (Table of Materials) is used to perturb the vision. The headset contains an LCD screen (dual AMOLED 3.6&#8217;&#8217; screen with a resolution of 1080 x 1200 pixels per eye) that provides the user with a stereoscopic view of the media sent to the device, offering three-dimensional depth perception. The refresh rate is 90 Hz, sufficient to provide a solid virtual sense to the users22. The field of view of the screen is 110&#176;, enough to generate visual perturbations similar to real world situations.
The headset tracks the rotation of the user&#8217;s head and alters the virtual view accordingly so that the user is fully immersed in the virtual environment; therefore, it can provide the normal visual feedback; and it can also perturb vision by rotating the visual field in sagittal plane.
Kinetic measurements
Vertical reaction force is measured by four load cells, sandwiched between two plates beneath the foot (Table of Materials). Ankle torque is measured directly by torque transducers with a capacity of 565 Nm and a torsional stiffness of 104 kNm/rad; it also can be measured indirectly from the vertical forces transduced by the load cells, using their distances to ankle axis of rotation23, assuming that horizontal forces applied to the feet in standing are small2,24. Center of pressure (COP) is measured in sagittal plane by dividing the ankle torque by the total vertical force, measured by the load cells23.
Kinematic measurements
Foot angle is the same as pedal angle, because when an ankle strategy is used, the subject&#8217;s foot moves with the pedal. Shank angle with respect to the vertical is obtained indirectly from the linear displacement of the shank, measured by a laser range finder (Table of Materials) with a resolution of 50 &#956;m and bandwidth of 750 Hz25. Ankle angle is the sum of the foot and shank angles. Body angle with respect to the vertical is obtained indirectly from the linear displacement of the mid-point between the left and right posterior superior iliac spines (PSIS), measured using a laser range finder (Table of Materials) with a resolution of 100 &#956;m and bandwidth of 750 Hz23. Head position and rotation are measured with respect to the global coordinate system of the VR environment by the VR system base stations that emit timed infrared (IR) pulses at 60 pulses per second that are picked up by the headset IR sensors with sub-millimeter precision.
Data acquisition
All signals are filtered with an anti-aliasing filter with a corner frequency of 486.3 and then sampled at 1000 Hz with high performance 24-bit/8-channel, simultaneous-sampling, dynamic signal acquisition cards (Table of Materials) with a dynamic range of 20 V.
Safety mechanisms
Six safety mechanisms have been incorporated into the standing apparatus to prevent injuries to subjects; the pedals are controlled separately and never interfere with each other. (1) The actuator shaft has a cam, which mechanically activates a valve that disconnects hydraulic pressure if the shaft rotation exceeds &#177; 20&#176; from its horizontal position. (2) Two adjustable mechanical stops limit the range of motion of the actuator; these are set to each subject&#8217;s range of motion prior to each experiment. (3) Both the subject and the experimenter hold a panic button; pressing the button disconnects hydraulic power from the actuators and causes them to become loose, so they can be moved manually. (4) Handrails located at either side of the subject are available to provide support in case of instability. (5) The subject wears a full body harness (Table of Materials), attached to rigid crossbars in the ceiling to support them in case of a fall. The harness is slack and does not interfere with normal standing, unless the subject becomes unstable, where the harness prevents the subject from falling. In the case of fall, the pedal movements will be stopped manually either by the subject, using the panic button or by the experimenter. (6) The servo-valves stop the rotation of the actuators using fail-safe mechanisms in case of electrical supply interruption.

<table><tbody><tr><td>5K potentiometer</td><td>Maurey</td><td>112P19502</td><td>Measures actuator shaft angle</td></tr><tr><td>8 channel Bagnoli surface EMG amplifiers and electrodes</td><td>Delsys</td><td></td><td>Measures the EMG of ankle muscles</td></tr><tr><td>AlienWare Laptop</td><td>Dell Inc.</td><td>P69F001-Rev. A02</td><td>VR-ready PC laptop</td></tr><tr><td>Data acquisition card</td><td>National instruments</td><td>4472</td><td>Samples the analogue signals from the sensors</td></tr><tr><td>Directional valve</td><td>REXROTH</td><td>4WMR10C3X</td><td>Bypasses the flow if the angle of actuator shaft goes beyond &amp;plusmn;20&amp;deg;</td></tr><tr><td>Full body harness</td><td>Jelco</td><td>740</td><td>Protect the subjects from falling</td></tr><tr><td>Laser range finder</td><td>Micro-epsilon 1302-100</td><td>1507307</td><td>Measures shank linear displacement</td></tr><tr><td>Laser range finder</td><td>Micro-epsilon 1302-200</td><td>1509074</td><td>Measures body linear displacement</td></tr><tr><td>Load cell</td><td>Omega</td><td>LC302-100</td><td>Measures vertical reaction forces</td></tr><tr><td>Proportional servo-valve</td><td>MOOG</td><td>D681-4718</td><td>Controls the hydraulic flow to the rotary actuators</td></tr><tr><td>Rotary actuator</td><td>Rotac</td><td>26R21VDEISFTFLGMTG</td><td>Applies mechanical perturbations</td></tr><tr><td>Torque transducer</td><td>Lebow</td><td>2110-5k</td><td>Measures ankle torque</td></tr><tr><td>Virtual Environment Motion Trackers</td><td>HTC inc.</td><td>1551984681</td><td>Tracks the head motion</td></tr><tr><td>Virtual Reality Headset</td><td>HTC inc.</td><td>1551984681</td><td>Provides visual perturbations</td></tr></tbody></table>

experimental methods to study human postural control

Many components of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems act in concert to achieve the stable, upright human posture. Controlled experiments accompanied by appropriate mathematical methods are needed to understand the role of the different sub-systems involved in human postural control. This article describes a protocol for performing perturbed standing experiments, acquiring experimental data, and carrying out the subsequent mathematical analysis, with the aim of understanding the role of musculoskeletal system and central control in human upright posture. The results generated by these methods are important, because they provide insight into the healthy balance control, form the basis for understanding the etiology of impaired balance in patients and the elderly, and aid in the design of interventions to improve postural control and stability. These methods can be used to study the role of somatosensory system, intrinsic stiffness of ankle joint, and visual system in postural control, and may also be extended to investigate the role of vestibular system. The methods are to be used in the case of an ankle strategy, where the body moves primarily about the ankle joint and is considered a single-link inverted pendulum.

Pseudo random ternary sequence (PRTS) and TrapZ signals
Figure 2A shows a PRTS signal, which is generated by integrating a pseudo random velocity profile. For each sample time <img alt="Equation 76" src="/files/ftp_upload/60078/60078eq76.jpg" />, the signal velocity may be equal to zero, or acquire a pre-defined positive or negative value, <img alt="Equation 77" src="/files/ftp_uplo...

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Experimental Methods to Study Human Postural Control

This article presents an experimental/analytic framework to study human postural control. The protocol provides step-by-step procedures for performing standing experiments, measuring body kinematics and kinetics signals, and analyzing the results to provide insight into the mechanisms underlying human postural control.

Many components of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems act in concert to achieve the stable, upright human posture. Controlled experiments accompanied ...

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9.4K Views.  McGill University. This article presents an experimental/analytic framework to study human postural control. The protocol provides step-by-step procedures for performing standing experiments, measuring body kinematics and kinetics signals, and analyzing the results to provide insight into the mechanisms underlying human postural control.

Video: Experimental Methods to Study Human Postural Control

Methods Development for Blood Borne Macrophage Carriage of Nanoformulated Antiretroviral Drugs

Nanoformulated drugs can improve pharmacodynamics and bioavailability while serving also to reduce drug toxicities for antiretroviral (ART) medicines. To this end, our laboratory has applied the principles of nanomedicine to simplify ART regimens and as such reduce toxicities while improving compliance and drug pharmacokinetics. Simple and reliable methods for manufacturing nanoformulated ART (nanoART) are shown. Particles of pure drug are encapsulated by a thin layer of surfactant lipid coating and produced by fractionating larger drug crystals into smaller ones by either wet milling or high-pressure homogenization. In an alternative method free drug is suspended in a droplet of a polymer. Herein, drug is dissolved within a polymer then agitated by ultrasonication until individual nanosized droplets are formed. Dynamic light scattering and microscopic examination characterize the physical properties of the particles (particle size, charge and shape). Their biologic properties (cell uptake and retention, cytotoxicity and antiretroviral efficacy) are determined with human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM). MDM are derived from human peripheral blood monocytes isolated from leukopacks using centrifugal elutriation for purification. Such blood-borne macrophages may be used as cellular transporters for nanoART distribution to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected organs. We posit that the repackaging of clinically available antiretroviral medications into nanoparticles for HIV-1 treatments may improve compliance and positively affect disease outcomes.

Nanoparticles of indinavir, ritonavir, efavirenz and atazanavir were manufactured using wet milling, homogenization and ultrasonication. These nanoformulations, collectively termed nanoformulated antiretroviral therapy (nanoART), assessed macrophage-based drug delivery. Monocyte-derived macrophage nanoART uptake, retention and sustained release were determined. These preliminary studies suggest the potential of nanoART for clinical use.

Nanoformulated drugs can improve pharmacodynamics and bioavailability while serving also to reduce drug toxicities for antiretroviral (ART) medicines. To ...

The Three-Dimensional Human Skin Reconstruct Model: a Tool to Study Normal  Skin and Melanoma Progression

Most in vitro studies in experimental skin biology have been done in 2-dimensional (2D) monocultures, while accumulating evidence suggests that cells behave differently when they are grown within a 3D extra-cellular matrix and also interact with other cells (1-5). Mouse models have been broadly utilized to study tissue morphogenesis in vivo. However mouse and human skin have significant differences in cellular architecture and physiology, which makes it difficult to extrapolate mouse studies to humans. Since melanocytes in mouse skin are mostly localized in hair follicles, they have distinct biological properties from those of humans, which locate primarily at the basal layer of the epidermis. The recent development of 3D human skin reconstruct models has enabled the field to investigate cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions between different cell types. The reconstructs consist of a "dermis" with fibroblasts embedded in a collagen I matrix, an "epidermis", which is comprised of stratified, differentiated keratinocytes and a functional basement membrane, which separates epidermis from dermis. Collagen provides scaffolding, nutrient delivery, and potential for cell-to-cell interaction. The 3D skin models incorporating melanocytic cells recapitulate natural features of melanocyte homeostasis and melanoma progression in human skin. As in vivo, melanocytes in reconstructed skin are localized at the basement membrane interspersed with basal layer keratinocytes. Melanoma cells exhibit the same characteristics reflecting the original tumor stage (RGP, VGP and metastatic melanoma cells) in vivo. Recently, dermal stem cells have been identified in the human dermis (6). These multi-potent stem cells can migrate to the epidermis and differentiate to melanocytes.

In this report, we describe the three-dimensional skin reconstruct model which mimics human skin in architecture and composition. Melanocyte physiology, melanoma progression and the fate of dermal stem cells have been investigated using the skin reconstruct model. The model is also useful as a preclinical tool for drug assessment.

Most in vitro studies in experimental skin biology have been done in 2-dimensional (2D) monocultures, while accumulating evidence suggests that cells ...

Substantiating Appropriate Motion Capture Techniques for the Assessment of Nordic Walking Gait and Posture in Older Adults

Nordic walking (NW) has become a safe and simple form of exercise in recent years, and in studying this gait pattern, various data collection techniques have been employed, each with positives and negatives. The aim was to determine the effect of NW on older adult gait and posture and to determine optimal use of different data collection systems in both short and long duration analysis. Gait and posture during NW and normal walking were assessed in 17 healthy older adults (age: 69 &#177; 7.3). Participants performed two trials of 6 Minute Walk Tests (6MWT) (1 with poles (WP) and 1 without poles (NP)) and 6 trials of a 5m walk (3 WP and 3 NP). Motion was recorded using two systems, a 6-sensor accelerometry system and an 8-camera 3-dimensional motion capture system, in order to quantify spatial-temporal, kinematic, and kinetic parameters.
With both systems, participants demonstrated increased stride length and double support and decreased gait speed and cadence WP compared to NP (p &#60;0.05). Also, with motion capture, larger single support time was found WP (p &#60;0.05). With 3-D capture, smaller hip power generation and moments of force were found at heel contact and pre-swing as well as smaller knee power absorption at heel contact, pre-swing, and terminal swing WP compared to NP, when assessed over one cycle (p &#60;0.05). Also, WP yielded smaller moments of force at heel contact and terminal swing along with larger moments at mid-stance of a gait cycle (p &#60;0.05). No changes were found for posture.
NW seems appropriate for promoting a normal gait pattern in older adults. Three-dimensional motion capture should primarily be used during short duration gait analysis (i.e. single gait cycle), while accelerometry systems should be primarily employed in instances requiring longer duration analysis such as during the 6MWT.

The aim was to substantiate optimal use of data collection techniques for Nordic walking gait and posture analysis. Three-dimensional motion capture should be used during short duration analysis (i.e. single gait cycle), while accelerometry should be employed for longer duration analysis (i.e. repeated cycles) like a 6 Minute Walk Test.

Nordic walking (NW) has become a safe and simple form of exercise in recent years, and in studying this gait pattern, various data collection techniques ...

Behavior

Sit-to-stand-and-walk from 120% Knee Height: A Novel Approach to Assess Dynamic Postural Control Independent of Lead-limb

Individuals with sensorimotor pathology e.g., stroke have difficulty executing the common task of rising from sitting and initiating gait (sit-to-walk: STW). Thus, in clinical rehabilitation separation of sit-to-stand and gait initiation - termed sit-to-stand-and-walk (STSW) - is usual. However, a standardized STSW protocol with a clearly defined analytical approach suitable for pathological assessment has yet to be defined.
Hence, a goal-orientated protocol is defined that is suitable for healthy and compromised individuals by requiring the rising phase to be initiated from 120% knee height with a wide base of support independent of lead limb. Optical capture of three-dimensional (3D) segmental movement trajectories, and force platforms to yield two-dimensional (2D) center-of-pressure (COP) trajectories permit tracking of the horizontal distance between COP and whole-body-center-of-mass (BCOM), the decrease of which increases positional stability but is proposed to represent poor dynamic postural control.
BCOM-COP distance is expressed with and without normalization to subjects&#39; leg length. Whilst COP-BCOM distances vary through STSW, normalized data at the key movement events of seat-off and initial toe-off (TO1) during steps 1 and 2 have low intra and inter subject variability in 5 repeated trials performed by 10 young healthy individuals. Thus, comparing COP-BCOM distance at key events during performance of an STSW paradigm between patients with upper motor neuron injury, or other compromised patient groups, and normative data in young healthy individuals is a novel methodology for evaluation of dynamic postural stability.

Here, we present a novel protocol to measure positional stability at key events during the sit-to-stand-to-walk using the center-of-pressure to the whole-body-center-of-mass distance. This was derived from the force platform and three-dimensional motion-capture technology. The paradigm is reliable and can be utilized for the assessment of neurologically compromised individuals.

Individuals with sensorimotor pathology e.g., stroke have difficulty executing the common task of rising from sitting and initiating gait (sit-to-walk: ...

A Vibrotactile Feedback Device for Seated Balance Assessment and Training

Postural perturbations, motion tracking, and sensory feedback are modern techniques used to challenge, assess, and train upright sitting, respectively. The goal of the developed protocol is to construct and operate a sitting platform that can be passively destabilized while an inertial measurement unit quantifies its motion and vibrating elements deliver tactile feedback to the user. Interchangeable seat attachments alter the stability level of the device to safely challenge sitting balance. A built-in microcontroller allows fine-tuning of the feedback parameters to augment sensory function. Posturographic measures, typical of balance assessment protocols, summarize the motion signals acquired during timed balance trials. No dynamic sitting protocol to date provides variable challenge, quantification, and sensory feedback free of laboratory constraints. Our results demonstrate that non-disabled users of the device exhibit significant changes in posturographic measures when balance difficulty is altered or vibrational feedback provided. The portable, versatile device has potential applications in rehabilitation (following skeletal, muscular, or neurological injury), training (for sports or spatial awareness), entertainment (via virtual or augmented reality), and research (of sitting-related disorders).

A sitting platform has been developed and assembled that passively destabilizes sitting posture in humans. During the user&#39;s stabilizing task, an inertial measurement unit records the device&#39;s motion, and vibrating elements deliver performance-based feedback to the seat. The portable, versatile device may be used in rehabilitation, assessment, and training paradigms.

Postural perturbations, motion tracking, and sensory feedback are modern techniques used to challenge, assess, and train upright sitting, respectively. ...

An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, clinicians typically employ the pull test to grade corrective responses to a backward perturbation at the shoulders. However, the pull test is prone to issues with reliability and scaling (score/4). Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to more precisely quantify postural responses. Akin to the clinical test, pulls are manually administered except pull force is also recorded. Displacements of the trunk and feet are captured by a semi-portable motion tracking system. Raw data represent distance traveled (in millimeter units), making subsequent interpretation and analysis intuitive. The instrumented pull test also detects variabilities influencing pull test administration, such as pull force, thereby identifying and quantifying potential confounds that can be accounted for by statistical techniques. The instrumented pull test could have application in studies seeking to capture early abnormalities in postural responses, track postural instability over time, and detect responses to therapy.

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is difficult to quantify. Clinical assessments such as the pull test suffer issues with reliability and scaling. Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to objectively characterize postural responses.

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, ...

Computerized Dynamic Posturography for Postural Control Assessment in Patients with Intermittent Claudication

Computerized dynamic posturography with the EquiTest is an objective technique for measuring postural strategies under challenging static and dynamic conditions. As part of a diagnostic assessment, the early detection of postural deficits is important so that appropriate and targeted interventions can be prescribed. The Sensory Organization Test (SOT) on the EquiTest determines an individual&#39;s use of the sensory systems (somatosensory, visual, and vestibular) that are responsible for postural control. Somatosensory and visual input are altered by the calibrated sway-referenced support surface and visual surround, which move in the anterior-posterior direction in response to the individual&#39;s postural sway. This creates a conflicting sensory experience. The Motor Control Test (MCT) challenges postural control by creating unexpected postural disturbances in the form of backwards and forwards translations. The translations are graded in magnitude and the time to recover from the perturbation is computed.
Intermittent claudication, the most common symptom of peripheral arterial disease, is characterized by a cramping pain in the lower limbs and caused by muscle ischemia secondary to reduced blood flow to working muscles during physical exertion. Claudicants often display poor balance, making them susceptible to falls and activity avoidance. The Ankle Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) is a noninvasive method for indicating the presence of peripheral arterial disease and intermittent claudication, a common symptom in the lower extremities. ABPI is measured as the highest systolic pressure from either the dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial artery divided by the highest brachial artery systolic pressure from either arm. This paper will focus on the use of computerized dynamic posturography in the assessment of balance in claudicants.

Individuals with intermittent claudication exhibit poor balance compared to healthy controls. Computerized dynamic posturography is an objective method for measuring an individual's postural responses to balance disturbances. This provides an objective reflection of the person&#x2019;s ability to respond to situations under which sensory stimuli are altered and unexpected perturbations occur.

Computerized dynamic posturography with the EquiTest is an objective technique for measuring postural strategies under challenging static and dynamic ...

Medicine

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Assessment of reactive balance traditionally imposes some type of perturbation to upright stance or gait followed by measurement of the resultant corrective behavior. These measures include muscle responses, limb movements, ground reaction forces, and even direct neurophysiological measures such as electroencephalography. Using this approach, researchers and clinicians can infer some basic principles regarding how the nervous system controls balance to avoid a fall. One limitation with the way in which these assessments are currently used is that they heavily emphasize reflexive actions without any need to revise automatic postural reactions. Such an exclusive focus on these highly stereotypical reactions would fail to adequately address how we can modify these reactions should the need arise (e.g., avoiding an obstacle with a recovery step). This would appear to be a glaring omission when one considers the enormous complexity of the environments we face daily. Overall, the status quo when evaluating the neural control of balance fails to truly expose how higher brain resources contribute to preventing falls in complex settings. The present protocol offers a way to require suppression of automatic, but inappropriate corrective balance reactions, and force a selection among alternative action choices to successfully recover balance following postural perturbation.

Here we offer a protocol that allows the user to selectively change affordances and/or constraints on movements that are relevant for recovering balance after postural perturbation.

Assessment of reactive balance traditionally imposes some type of perturbation to upright stance or gait followed by measurement of the resultant ...

Evaluating Postural Control and Lower-extremity Muscle Activation in Individuals with Chronic Ankle Instability

Computerized dynamic posturography (CDP) is an objective technique for the evaluation of postural stability under static and dynamic conditions and perturbation. CDP is based on the inverted pendulum model that traces the interrelationship between the center of pressure and the center of gravity. CDP can be used to analyze the proportions of vision, proprioception, and vestibular sensation to maintain postural stability. The following characters define chronic ankle instability (CAI): persistent ankle pain, swelling, the feeling of &#8220;giving way,&#8221; and self-reported disability. Postural stability and fibular muscle activation level in individuals with CAI decreased due to lateral ankle ligament complex injuries. Few studies have used CDP to explore the postural stability of individuals with CAI. Studies that investigate postural stability and related muscle activation by using synchronized CDP with surface electromyography are lacking. This CDP protocol includes a sensory organization test (SOT), a motor control test (MCT), and an adaption test (ADT), as well as tests that measure unilateral stance (US) and limit of stability (LOS). The surface electromyography system is synchronized with CDP to collect data on lower limb muscle activation during measurement. This protocol presents a novel approach for evaluating the coordination of the visual, somatosensory, and vestibular systems and related muscle activation to maintain postural stability. Moreover, it provides new insights into the neuromuscular control of individuals with CAI when coping with real complex environments.

Individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI) exhibit postural control deficiency and delayed muscle activation of lower extremities. Computerized dynamic posturography combined with surface electromyography provides insights into the coordination of the visual, somatosensory, and vestibular systems with muscle activation regulation to maintain postural stability in individuals with CAI.

Computerized dynamic posturography (CDP) is an objective technique for the evaluation of postural stability under static and dynamic conditions and ...

Neuroscience

Postural Organization of Gait Initiation for Biomechanical Analysis Using Force Platform Recordings

Gait initiation (GI), the transient phase between orthograde posture and steady-state locomotion, is a functional task and an experimental paradigm that is classically used in the literature to obtain insight into the basic postural mechanisms underlying body motion and balance control. Investigating GI has also contributed to a better understanding of the physiopathology of postural disorders in elderly and neurological participants (e.g., patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease). As such, it is recognized to have important clinical implications, especially in terms of fall prevention.
This paper aims to provide scholars, clinicians, and higher education students information on the material and method developed to investigate GI postural organization via a biomechanical approach. The method is based on force platform recordings and the direct principle of mechanics to compute the kinematics of the center of gravity and center of pressure. The interaction between these two virtual points is a key element in this method since it determines the conditions of stability and whole-body progression. The protocol involves the participant initially standing immobile in an upright posture and starting to walk until the end of an at least 5 m track.
It is recommended to vary the GI velocity (slow, spontaneous, fast) and the level of temporal pressure - gait may be initiated as soon as possible after the deliverance of a departure signal (high level of temporal pressure) or when the participant feels ready (low level of temporal pressure). Biomechanical parameters obtained with this method (e.g., duration and amplitude of anticipatory postural adjustments, step length/width, performance, and stability) are defined, and their computation method is detailed. In addition, typical values obtained in healthy young adults are provided. Finally, critical steps, limitations, and significance of the method with respect to the alternative method (motion capture system) are discussed.

This paper describes the material and method developed to investigate the postural organization of gait initiation. The method is based on force platform recordings and on the direct principle of mechanics to compute center of gravity and center of pressure kinematics.

Gait initiation (GI), the transient phase between orthograde posture and steady-state locomotion, is a functional task and an experimental paradigm that ...