The authors are very thankful to the managing team of Elotrolado.net, because without their help this study would have been impossible to conduct. We are also grateful to Encuestafacil.com, which offered us their services free of charge so that we could create the questionnaire and use their servers to gather the data. Finally, we appreciate the feedback and support received from the Scientific and Ethical Committee of the Nebrija University and from Alfonso X el Sabio University.

The protocol was submitted to the Scientific and Ethical Committee of the Nebrija University, in which a group of external experts reviewed and validated the process. To be able to participate in the study, we required a written acceptance informed consent as recommended by the Declaration of Helsinki17, and it was made clear to the participants that they were not going to be involved in any experimental condition.
1. Design of the research instrument
<ol>
	<li>Design a first draft of the questionnaire to meet the goals of the study (see a sample draft of the questionnaire provided as Supplementary File 1). 
	NOTE: The draft is created with Microsoft Word so it can be easily shared and modified. Questions included single, multiple, and open answers that were grouped in different thematic pages:</li>
</ol>
<ul>
	<li>Page 1: Accept a written informed consent obligatorily.</li>
	<li>Page 2: Demographic and social data of participants.</li>
	<li>Page 3: Descriptive information of previous VR experience as well as frequency of usage.</li>
	<li>Page 4: Subjective opinions and attitudes regarding VR.</li>
	<li>Page 5: Beliefs about the future of VR in education3.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
	<li>Send a draft to three social scientists and experts in technology that are external to the research team. The task of this committee is to review the experimental design, including ethical aspects and study design according to scientific guidelines. Also, they must validate the tool, considering aspects such as item comprehension (both questions and possible answers) in relation to the research goals.</li>
	<li>Design a definitive version of the questionnaire (see Supplementary File 2), considering the suggestions made by the group of experts, so it can be submitted to a scientific and ethical committee along with a research report of the project. 
	NOTE: We obtained a positive evaluation both in the scientific and ethical areas of the Nebrija University committee (see the positive evaluation of the Nebrija University committee provided as Supplementary File 3). Also, there was a follow-up of the entire research process conducted by the same committee.</li>
</ol>
2. Adapting the questionnaire to the online specification of a secure server
<ol>
	<li>Go to the main page of the software as a service (SaaS) with a private server (see Table of Materials) as a registered user of the platform (a registration process that must be done previously by adding personal data) and select Create your survey from scratch (see Figure 1).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: How to create the questionnaire from scratch. (1) Click on New Survey icon; (2) Select Create Your Survey from Scratch. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="2">
	<li>Create several pages of the questionnaire with the questions as well as with possible answers through the SaaS with a private server. 
	NOTE: In this step it is important to follow the recommendations received during the validation process by the group of experts. Also, in the instructions to the participants explain the question posed correctly and the type of answer (e.g., open, closed, one- or multiple-choice, etc.) that must be filled out (see Figure 2).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: How to design the questionnaire. (1) Edit the survey; (2) Add and configure pages and questions; (3&#8211;5) Develop pages, questions, and answers. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="3">
	<li>Once the survey is created and saved (see the final questionnaire in Supplemental File 2), return to the main menu of the platform, select the questionnaire, and click on the icon Open | Close Public Survey to make it available to participants. After that, click on the icon Obtain a Link to the Survey, choosing one of several options by which participants will access the survey (e.g., a link embedded in an email or in a website, an iframe in a website, a pop up in a website, a link to computers of a call center, see Figure 3). 
	NOTE: The criterion to develop the final tool were that (1) the questionnaire had to be completed with any electronic device with Internet access (e.g., tablets, personal computers, smartphones); (2) participants had to fill out the questionnaire just one time (to this end, the chosen system must be able to keep the information of users who have already participated by identifying the IP of the device that was used to access and complete the survey); (3) the selected system had to guarantee the anonymity of the participants at all times, allowing the data to be stored on a secure private server.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: How to obtain a link to the survey. (1) Open the survey; (2) Click on Obtain a Link to the Survey icon; (3) Select the chosen method. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
3. Sampling method
<ol>
	<li>Go to the internet portal as a registered user (registration that must be done before completing all the personal data) and create a thread in the VR forum to detail the study (see Table of Materials). Post a hyperlink to the survey hosted in the online private server (see Figure 4).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: How to launch a thread in the VR forum. (1) Click on the Sistemas VR icon; (2) Click on NUEVO HILO icon; (3,4) Write a post with the questionnaire link included. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="2">
	<li>Go to the main page of the SaaS as a registered user of the platform, select the questionnaire created, and click on Results. On the pop-up menu, click on the icon Questionnaire to access the filled-out questionnaires directly. Eliminate all the incomplete or erroneous questionnaires through the SaaS (see Figure 5).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: How to eliminate all the incomplete or erroneous questionnaires. (1) Click on Results icon; (2) click on Export icon; (3) Eliminate all the incomplete or erroneous questionnaires. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="3">
	<li>Once the questionnaires reach the minimum number of participants (&#62;100) after excluding incomplete questionnaires, go to the main page of the SaaS as a registered user of the platform, select the questionnaire, and click on the icon Open/Close Public Survey to finish the survey, so no one else can participate again (see step 1 in Figure 3 again). 
	NOTE: The participants of this study were 117 VR users (21 females and 96 males) who owned a VR HMD (any available in Spain). Note that the final sample of 117 participants resulted from a screening and filtering of 578 questionnaires, of which we excluded many undelivered cases, as well as 36 questionnaires that were incomplete, without applying any other filter to the data. As for the mean age of the participants, &#956; = 36.91 years old with a standard deviation of &#963;X = 6.39 (&#956; = 36.19 and &#963;X = 7.50 for females, and &#956; = 37.07 and &#963;X = 6.15 for males).</li>
</ol>
4. Statistical analyses
<ol>
	<li>Go to the main page of the SaaS as a registered user of the platform, select the survey created and click on the icon Results. On the pop-up menu, click on Export and select the pop-up options of the report detailed (advanced spreadsheet format), in Text and with .csv extension (see Figure 6). Once the questionnaires are completed by the participants, export them to an email account in .csv format, so these can be kept in a safe, private, and protected place.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: How to export data to use in the statistical software package. (1) Click on Results icon; (2) Click on Questionnaires icon; (3) Select Text and csv in the Detailed option. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="2">
	<li>Open the statistical software (see Table of Materials) and select File Menu | Import Data | CSV Data. Select the.csv file previously saved. This process allows transformation of the anonymous data into the analysis format required by the statistical software package (see Figure 7).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: How to import data in the statistical software package. Select File Menu | Import Data | CSV Data. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="3">
	<li>Select the variables to analyze statistically (&#34;Gender&#34;, &#34;Age&#34;, &#34;Educational Qualification&#34;, &#34;Current Direct Relationship with Formal Education&#34;, &#34;Previous Experiences with Sophisticated VR HMD&#34;, &#34;Level of the Private VR HMD&#34;, &#34;Number of Years Using VR&#34;, &#34;Usage Frequency&#34;, &#34;VR Usage for Educational Purposes&#34;, &#34;Interest in VR for Educational Purposes&#34;, &#34;Optimism Regarding the Future Pedagogical Possibilities of Virtual Reality&#34; and &#34;Optimism Regarding the Future Pedagogical Possibilities of Virtual Reality&#34;) and delete the rest of the information imported by the .sav file generated by the statistical software package.</li>
	<li>Assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire with the Alpha&#39;s Cronbach with the statistical software package. To this end, select the Analyze Menu | Scale | Reliability Analysis, and transfer all the variables to the Reliability Analysis dialogue box. Finally, click on the OK icon to generate the desired output (see Figure 8). 
	NOTE: The questionnaire had a high reliability and internal consistency, measured through the Alpha&#39;s Cronbach (&#945; = 0.826).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 8" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8: How to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire. Select Analyze Menu | Scale | Reliability Analysis. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig8large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="5">
	<li>Carry out the descriptive analysis with the statistical software package. Explore descriptive statistics such as the arithmetic mean and the standard deviation for the quantitative variable &#34;Age&#34;. Study frequency distribution in the rest of the variables. To carry this analysis out, select Analyze Menu | Descriptive Statistics | Frequencies and, after the output, Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Descriptive (see Figure 9).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 9" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig9.jpg" /> 
Figure 9: How to carry out the descriptive analysis of the data. Select Analyze Menu | Descriptive Statistics | Frequencies and, after the output, Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Descriptive. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig9large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="6">
	<li>Conduct One-Way ANOVA analysis with the statistical software package. To this end, select Analyze Menu | Compare Means | One-Way ANOVA, and in the One-Way ANOVA dialogue box put &#34;Age&#34; as the factor and the rest of the variables as dependent variables (see Figure 10). 
	NOTE: This process should be done for each of the nominal (&#34;Gender&#34;, &#34;Current Direct Relationship with Formal Education&#34;, &#34;Previous Experiences with Sophisticated VR HMD&#34;, &#34;VR Usage for Educational Purposes&#34;, &#34;Interest in VR for Educational Purposes&#34;, &#34;Optimism Regarding the Future Pedagogical Possibilities of Virtual Reality&#34;, and &#34;Optimism Regarding the Future Pedagogical Possibilities of Virtual Reality&#34;) and ordinal variables (&#34;Educational Qualification&#34;, &#34;Level of the Private VR HMD&#34;, &#34;Number of Years Using VR&#34;, and &#34;Usage Frequency&#34;). The output shows the statistical significance of &#34;Age&#34; as a discrete quantitative variable by comparing means with the Snedecor&#39;s F distribution (non-considering equality of variances).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 10" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig10.jpg" /> 
Figure 10: How to conduct One-Way ANOVA analysis. Select Analyze Menu | Compare Means | One-Way ANOVA. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig10large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="7">
	<li>Conduct the Chi-squared test on contingency tables to test whether or not there is a relationship between the variables, and Somers&#39; d to reflect the strength and direction of the associations. To this end, go to Analyze menu | Descriptive Statistics | Crosstabs and, in the Crosstabs dialogue box, click on Statistics and select options Chi-squared and Somers&#39; d and click on Continue (see Figure 11).</li>
	<li>In the Crosstabs dialogue box, transfer one of the nominal or ordinal variables as rows and the rest as columns. This process must be repeated for each of the variables in the rows, eliminating the ones already analyzed, to obtain all the correlations between them.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 11" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig11.jpg" /> 
Figure 11: How to conduct Chi-squared and Somers d test. (1) Select Analyze Menu | Descriptive Statistics | Crosstabs; (2) Select Chi-squared and Somers&#39; d options. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60188/60188fig11large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This study explores the profile of Spanish early adopters of VR, assessing their interest in the use of VR as a learning tool. Therefore, along with other studies, it offers a fresh perspective on the real possibilities of VR and its applications to the classroom9.
The users of VR devices live literally everywhere, so there is not a physical place to identify and locate them. For this reason, the only possible way to find them is through VR forums and websites that VR u...

Information and communication technologies are evolving rapidly to make it easier for human beings to communicate and relate to each other, and the distance and time that someone needs to contact and interact with someone else is reduced. However, this connection, when made through technology, is still much poorer and limited than face-to-face contact1.
VR provides a major advance in simulating physical experiences, allowing us to interact within a computer environment that feels real, giving us a sense of presence and closeness. This is one of the main reasons why VR occupies a privileged place in the plans of technology development of important companies. However, if they want to meet the needs of their potential customers, research on VR is essential to accomplish this goal2.
In Spain, as in most Western societies, the emergence of the first commercial head-mounted displays (HMD) capable of providing acceptable immersion experiences3 increased the interest in VR, leading to the development of software and VR experiences. For instance, some of the most important VR studies are currently Spanish, such as Vertical Robot, awarded multiple times for its products4, or the Tessera Studios and Dual Mirror Games, all of them of international prestige. The educational and scientific spheres have also experienced a whole explosion of research and applied educational experiences from 2015 onwards, as shown in the review by Aznar-D&#237;az, Romero-Rodr&#237;guez, and Rodr&#237;guez-Garc&#237;a5.
Most universities are already aware of the crucial role that VR will play not only in the business and industry sector, but also in many scientific disciplines. Therefore, they are working on several research and innovation lines. For example, the Alfonso X el Sabio University is a pioneer worldwide in the use of VR simulation and augmented reality for training future doctors at the &#34;UAX Virtual Simulation Hospital&#34;, unique in the world. Furthermore, this university applies VR in social, psychological, and educational research6.
Since the popularization of the Internet a few decades ago, different educational methodologies have evolved towards the so-called e-learning that a growing number of universities are adopting7,8. This online learning system is aimed at developing distance learning through technological means, some of which were developed specifically for it, while others were incorporated and adapted for educational purposes. However, e-learning is not exempt from limitations when it comes to social interaction. In this sense, VR considerably reduces some of these shortcomings, making interaction between people easier and much more realistic than any other technology. Also, it takes advantage of all the possibilities that technology offers us, creating an almost infinite world of opportunities3. For instance, VR would allow us to travel through the universe, or along the seabed, to see dinosaurs, to observe the microscopic world, or even to live emotions associated with certain experiences and social events in a simulated way. Therefore, VR could be a vital educational resource, helping teachers in their struggle to engage students with classroom topics 9,10,11.
However, not every aspect of VR is positive, and some downsides must be considered. As mentioned above, it would be useless to develop new and educational applications for VR if the potential trainees and students were not willing to use it or preferred other forms of e-learning, which could be narrower yet more aligned with their true interests and preferences. This is why the desired relationship between VR and learning not only depends on a world of exciting possibilities, but more importantly, on building this relationship upon real social needs and demands. We must bear in mind that VR was recently targeted by companies, and that less than 1% of the total worldwide population has used it. VR is also a technology that is still in its infancy and that cannot be understood if someone has not used it. This last point explains why VR is surrounded by so many prejudices that result either from ignorance or from the social fear of novelty12,13.
To bridge this gap between potential uses of VR and actual demand, it is necessary to find out the expectations of those early adopters that purchase HMDs as soon as they are available in the market. These users are so powerfully attracted to technological innovations that they do not fear purchasing new products that may succeed or fail commercially. Therefore, unlike the rest of the population, the uncertainty that surrounds these new products does not affect them. For this reason, they are the first to discover the real possibilities of VR technology not yet established in the market. Consequently, they can provide information at a real user level, making them a valuable source for this study.
As a sampling method, we designed an online examination questionnaire that was filled out by a representative convenience sample of early adopters. Participants were recruited from a VR forum in a Spanish portal for communication and information technologies, digital leisure, and video games with more than 460,000 users and ten million monthly visits14 (Table of Materials). We created a thread that received 2,000 visits in less than 2 months. The participants who accessed the questionnaire through the hyperlink responded to all the questions raised.
So far, in Spain this is the only website with a specific VR forum and more than 400 threads. Around 76,000 early VR adopters contributed messages and posts talking about all HMDs and platforms on the market15. For this reason, it is the best place to locate a homogeneous convenience sample of early VR adopters. According to Jager, Putnick, and Bornstein16, when a subgroup is homogeneous on one or more sociodemographic factors, we can estimate results with clearer generalizability, providing more accurate accounts of population effects and subpopulation differences. It also eliminates possible biases common in heterogenous convenience sampling.
Our research goals were: (1) to study the profile of early adopters; (2) to examine the current state of VR as an educational technology, determining its degree of implementation; (3) to assess the acceptance of VR as a learning tool among early adopters.

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		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Encuestafacil.com Saas (Software as a Service)</td>
			<td style="width:223px;">Encuestafacil.com</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">2019</td>
			<td style="width:457px;">Software as a Service in the Encuestafacil.com private data server</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:331px;">Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)</td>
			<td style="width:223px;">IBM</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">24</td>
			<td>Software package used in statistical analysis of data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="147">
			<td height="147" style="height:147px;width:331px;">VR Forum in Elotrolado.net online portal</td>
			<td style="width:223px;">New EOL, S.L.</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">2019</td>
			<td style="width:457px;">The elotrolado.net is a Spanish website for communication and information technologies, digital leisure and video games, with more than 460,000 users and ten million of monthly visits. So far, it is the only Spanish website with a specific VR forum with more than 400 threads. Around 76,000 early VR adopters contribute with messages and posts talking about all HMD, and platforms on the market.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

online explorative study on the learning uses of virtual reality among early adopters

Virtual reality (VR) has shown great educational potential because it makes it possible to simulate any desired situation or event, thus playing an important role in addressing current educational challenges. Despite the unlimited learning possibilities that VR may offer, unless users are willing to apply virtual devices to education, the investment of time, money, and effort will be fruitless. It is therefore crucial to assess the educational interest of the first generation of VR users and to identify their current needs. To this end, in this study we designed an online questionnaire and applied it through the SaaS (Software as a service) of a private server. The sample consisted of 117 early VR adopters recruited via a main portal of communication and information technologies in Spain. In order to engage participants, we posted a thread in the main forum, which is dedicated to the advances and potential uses of VR. Once the responses were gathered, we analyzed the relationship between 12 variables (mean contrasts with Snedecor&#39;s F, and contingency analysis with chi-square and Sommer&#39;s d). The results showed that the current profile of a VR user is a male over 35 years old, with university studies, and who has purchased his viewer recently (&#60;1 year). As for the learning and teaching applications that these users were interested in, only 13.7% of the participants in this study use VR for educational purposes, although 28.2% were interested, indicating that perhaps the lack of applications or learning experiences may be hampering the use of VR within education. Almost half of the early adopters surveyed would like to learn using VR technology and are somehow optimistic about the relationship between VR and education, particularly those who are younger.

Table 1 presents the frequency distribution of the categorical variables (nominal, dichotomous, and ordinal variables) along with the mean and standard deviation of the interval scale variable &#34;Age&#34;.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">CATEGORICAL VARIABLES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gender</td>
			<td>Levels</td>
			<td>Frequency</td>
			<td>Percentage</td>
...

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Online Explorative Study on the Learning Uses of Virtual Reality Among Early Adopters

This article describes the profile of Spanish early adopters of virtual reality and their interests and preferences regarding learning and educational applications for this technology. To this aim, we designed an online questionnaire and interviewed 117 users of the main virtual reality forum on the Internet.

Virtual reality (VR) has shown great educational potential because it makes it possible to simulate any desired situation or event, thus playing an ...

online-explorative-study-on-learning-uses-virtual-reality-among-early

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.1K Views.  Alfonso X El Sabio University. This article describes the profile of Spanish early adopters of virtual reality and their interests and preferences regarding learning and educational applications for this technology. To this aim, we designed an online questionnaire and interviewed 117 users of the main virtual reality forum on the Internet.

Video: Online Explorative Study on the Learning Uses of Virtual Reality Among Early Adopters

Two-photon Calcium Imaging in Mice Navigating a Virtual Reality Environment

In recent years, two-photon imaging has become an invaluable tool in neuroscience, as it allows for chronic measurement of the activity of genetically identified cells during behavior1-6. Here we describe methods to perform two-photon imaging in mouse cortex while the animal navigates a virtual reality environment. We focus on the aspects of the experimental procedures that are key to imaging in a behaving animal in a brightly lit virtual environment. The key problems that arise in this experimental setup that we here address are: minimizing brain motion related artifacts, minimizing light leak from the virtual reality projection system, and minimizing laser induced tissue damage. We also provide sample software to control the virtual reality environment and to do pupil tracking. With these procedures and resources it should be possible to convert a conventional two-photon microscope for use in behaving mice.

Here we describe the experimental procedures involved in two-photon imaging of mouse cortex during behavior in a virtual reality environment.

In recent years, two-photon imaging has become an invaluable tool in neuroscience, as it allows for chronic measurement of the activity of genetically ...

Development of a Virtual Reality Assessment of Everyday Living Skills

Cognitive impairments affect the majority of patients with schizophrenia and these impairments predict poor long term psychosocial outcomes.&#160; Treatment studies aimed at cognitive impairment in patients with schizophrenia not only require demonstration of improvements on cognitive tests, but also evidence that any cognitive changes lead to clinically meaningful improvements.&#160; Measures of &#8220;functional capacity&#8221; index the extent to which individuals have the potential to perform skills required for real world functioning. &#160;Current data do not support the recommendation of any single instrument for measurement of functional capacity.&#160; The Virtual Reality Functional Capacity Assessment Tool (VRFCAT) is a novel, interactive gaming based measure of functional capacity that uses a realistic simulated environment to recreate routine activities of daily living. Studies are currently underway to evaluate and establish the VRFCAT&#8217;s sensitivity, reliability, validity, and practicality.&#160;This new measure of functional capacity is practical, relevant, easy to use, and has several features that improve validity and sensitivity of measurement of function in clinical trials of patients with CNS disorders.

A challenge for proving treatment efficacy for cognitive impairments in schizophrenia is finding the optimizing measurement of skills related to everyday functioning.&#160; The Virtual Reality Functional Capacity Assessment Tool (VRFCAT) is an interactive gaming based computerized measure aimed at skills associated with everyday functioning, including baseline impairments and treatment related changes.

Cognitive impairments affect the majority of patients with schizophrenia and these impairments predict poor long term psychosocial outcomes.&#160; ...

Using Virtual Reality to Transfer Motor Skill Knowledge from One Hand to Another

As far as acquiring motor skills is concerned, training by voluntary physical movement is superior to all other forms of training (e.g. training by observation or passive movement of trainee&#39;s hands by a robotic device). This obviously presents a major challenge in the rehabilitation of a paretic limb since voluntary control of physical movement is limited. Here, we describe a novel training scheme we have developed that has the potential to circumvent this major challenge. We exploited the voluntary control of one hand and provided real-time movement-based manipulated sensory feedback as if the other hand is moving. Visual manipulation through virtual reality (VR) was combined with a device that yokes left-hand fingers to passively follow right-hand voluntary finger movements. In healthy subjects, we demonstrate enhanced within-session performance gains of a limb in the absence of voluntary physical training. Results in healthy subjects suggest that training with the unique VR setup might also be beneficial for patients with upper limb hemiparesis by exploiting the voluntary control of their healthy hand to improve rehabilitation of their affected hand.

We describe a novel virtual-reality based setup which exploits voluntary control of one hand to improve motor-skill performance in the other (non-trained) hand. This is achieved by providing real-time movement-based sensory feedback as if the non-trained hand is moving. This new approach may be used to enhance rehabilitation of patients with unilateral hemiparesis.

As far as acquiring motor skills is concerned, training by voluntary physical movement is superior to all other forms of training (e.g. training by ...

Mobile Game-based Virtual Reality Program for Upper Extremity Stroke Rehabilitation

Stroke rehabilitation requires repetitive, intensive, goal-oriented therapy. Virtual reality (VR) has the potential to satisfy these requirements. Game-based therapy can promote patients&#39; engagement in rehabilitation therapy as a more interesting and a motivating tool. Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet PCs can provide personalized home-based therapy with interactive communication between patients and clinicians. In this study, a mobile VR upper extremity rehabilitation program using game applications was developed. The findings from the study show that the mobile game-based VR program effectively promotes upper extremity recovery in patients with stroke. In addition, patients completed two weeks of treatment using the program without adverse effects and were generally satisfied with the program. This mobile game-based VR upper extremity rehabilitation program can substitute for some parts of the conventional therapy that are delivered one-on-one by an occupational therapist. This time-efficient, easy to implement, and clinically effective program would be a good candidate tool for tele-rehabilitation for upper extremity recovery in patients with stroke. Patients and therapists can collaborate remotely through these e-health rehabilitation programs while reducing economic and social costs.

Here, we present a protocol to develop and apply a mobile game-based virtual reality program for the recovery of upper limb dysfunction in patients with stroke. The present study shows that the mobile program is feasible and effectively promotes upper limb recovery in stroke patients.

Stroke rehabilitation requires repetitive, intensive, goal-oriented therapy. Virtual reality (VR) has the potential to satisfy these requirements. ...

Measuring the Kinematics of Daily Living Movements with Motion Capture Systems in Virtual Reality

The inability to complete instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) is a precursor to various neuropsychological diseases. Questionnaire-based assessments of IADL are easy to use but prone to subjective bias. Here, we describe a novel virtual reality (VR) test to assess two complex IADL tasks: handling financial transactions and using public transportation. While a participant performs the tasks in a VR setting, a motion capture system traces the position and orientation of the dominant hand and head in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Kinematic raw data are collected and converted into &#39;kinematic performance measures,&#39; i.e., motion trajectory, moving distance, and time to completion. Motion trajectory is the path of a particular body part (e.g., dominant hand or head) in space. Moving distance refers to the total distance of the trajectory, and time to completion is how long it took to complete an IADL task. These kinematic measures could discriminate patients with cognitive impairment from healthy controls. The development of this kinematic measuring protocol allows detection of early IADL-related cognitive impairments.

We designed a virtual reality test to assess instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) with a motion capture system. We propose a detailed kinematic analysis to interpret the participant&#39;s various movements, including trajectory, moving distance, and time to completion to evaluate IADL capabilities.

The inability to complete instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) is a precursor to various neuropsychological diseases. Questionnaire-based ...

Virtual Reality Experiments with Physiological Measures

Virtual reality (VR) experiments are increasingly employed because of their internal and external validity compared to real-world observation and laboratory experiments, respectively. VR is especially useful for geographic visualizations and investigations of spatial behavior. In spatial behavior research, VR provides a platform for studying the relationship between navigation and physiological measures (e.g., skin conductance, heart rate, blood pressure). Specifically, physiological measures allow researchers to address novel questions and constrain previous theories of spatial abilities, strategies, and performance. For example, individual differences in navigation performance may be explained by the extent to which changes in arousal mediate the effects of task difficulty. However, the complexities in the design and implementation of VR experiments can distract experimenters from their primary research goals and introduce irregularities in data collection and analysis. To address these challenges, the Experiments in Virtual Environments (EVE) framework includes standardized modules such as participant training with the control interface, data collection using questionnaires, the synchronization of physiological measurements, and data storage. EVE also provides the necessary infrastructure for data management, visualization, and evaluation. The present paper describes a protocol that employs the EVE framework to conduct navigation experiments in VR with physiological sensors. The protocol lists the steps necessary for recruiting participants, attaching the physiological sensors, administering the experiment using EVE, and assessing the collected data with EVE evaluation tools. Overall, this protocol will facilitate future research by streamlining the design and implementation of VR experiments with physiological sensors.

Virtual reality (VR) experiments can be difficult to implement and require meticulous planning. This protocol describes a method for the design and implementation of VR experiments that collect physiological data from human participants. The Experiments in Virtual Environments (EVE) framework is employed to accelerate this process.

Virtual reality (VR) experiments are increasingly employed because of their internal and external validity compared to real-world observation and ...

Using the FishSim Animation Toolchain to Investigate Fish Behavior: A Case Study on Mate-Choice Copying In Sailfin Mollies

Over the last decade, employing computer animations for animal behavior research has increased due to its ability to non-invasively manipulate the appearance and behavior of visual stimuli, compared to manipulating live animals. Here, we present the FishSim Animation Toolchain, a software framework developed to provide researchers with an easy-to-use method for implementing 3D computer animations in behavioral experiments with fish. The toolchain offers templates to create virtual 3D stimuli of five different fish species. Stimuli are customizable in both appearance and size, based on photographs taken of live fish. Multiple stimuli can be animated by recording swimming paths in a virtual environment using a video game controller. To increase standardization of the simulated behavior, the prerecorded swimming path may be replayed with different stimuli. Multiple animations can later be organized into playlists and presented on monitors during experiments with live fish.
In a case study with sailfin mollies (Poecilia latipinna), we provide a protocol on how to conduct a mate-choice copying experiment with FishSim. We utilized this method to create and animate virtual males and virtual model females, and then presented these to live focal females in a binary choice experiment. Our results demonstrate that computer animation may be used to simulate virtual fish in a mate-choice copying experiment to investigate the role of female gravid spots as an indication of quality for a model female in mate-choice copying.
Applying this method is not limited to mate-choice copying experiments but can be used in various experimental designs. Still, its usability depends on the visual capabilities of the study species and first needs validation. Overall, computer animations offer a high degree of control and standardization in experiments and bear the potential to &#39;reduce&#39; and &#39;replace&#39; live stimulus animals as well as to &#39;refine&#39; experimental procedures.

Using the FishSim Animation Toolchain to Investigate Fish Behavior: A Case Study on Mate-Choice Copying In Sailfin Mollies

Using the novel FishSim Animation Toolchain, we present a protocol for non-invasive visual manipulation of public information in the context of mate-choice copying in sailfin mollies. FishSim Animation Toolchain provides an easy-to-use framework for the design, animation and presentation of computer-animated fish stimuli for behavioral experiments with live test fish.

Over the last decade, employing computer animations for animal behavior research has increased due to its ability to non-invasively manipulate the ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Online Gamers

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that applies a weak electric current to the scalp to modulate neuronal membrane potentials. Compared to other brain stimulation methods, tDCS is relatively safe, simple, and inexpensive to administer.
Since excessive online gaming can negatively affect mental health and daily functioning, developing treatment options for gamers is necessary. Although tDCS over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has demonstrated promising results for various addictions, it has not been tested in gamers. This paper describes a protocol and a feasibility study for applying repeated tDCS over the DLPFC and neuroimaging to examine the underlying neural correlates in gamers.
At baseline, individuals who play online games report average weekly hours spent on games, complete questionnaires on addiction symptoms and self-control, and undergo brain 18F-&#64258;uoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). The tDCS protocol consists of 12 sessions over the DLPFC for 4 weeks (anode F3/cathode F4, 2 mA for 30 min per session). Then, a follow-up is conducted using the same protocol as the baseline. Individuals who do not play online games receive only baseline FDG-PET scans without tDCS. Changes of clinical characteristics and asymmetry of regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose (rCMRglu) in the DLPFC are examined in gamers. In addition, asymmetry of rCMRglu is compared between gamers and non-gamers at baseline.
In our experiment, 15 gamers received tDCS sessions and completed baseline and follow-up scans. Ten non-gamers underwent FDG-PET scans at the baseline. The tDCS reduced addiction symptoms, time spent on games, and increased self-control. Moreover, abnormal asymmetry of rCMRglu in the DLPFC at baseline was alleviated after tDCS.
The current protocol may be useful for assessing treatment efficacy of tDCS and its underlying brain changes in gamers. Further randomized sham-controlled studies are warranted. Moreover, the protocol can be applied to other neurological and psychiatric disorders.

We present a protocol and a feasibility study for applying transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and neuroimaging assessment in online gamers.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that applies a weak electric current to the scalp to modulate ...

Assessing the Coherence of Parents' Short Narratives Regarding their Child Using the Five-Minute Speech Sample Procedure

Valid and efficient measures for assessing the quality of parent-child relationships are needed to facilitate research and evidence-based practice with parents. This paper focuses on such a method, namely Five-Minute Speech Sample-Coherence (FMSS-Coherence). In this method, a parent is asked to speak for five uninterrupted minutes about her/his child and their relationship. The resulted narrative is coded for coherence, namely the extent to which the parent provides&#160;in the narrative&#160;a clear, consistent, multidimensional and well-supported portrayal of the child. FMSS-Coherence is based on attachment research that shows that the coherence of parents&#8217; narratives is indicative of the quality of the parent-child relationship and child adjustment. It overcomes the limitations of attachment narrative measures which are typically labor intensive. FMSS-Coherence is less nuanced than extant attachment narrative measures. Yet, studies of families from different cultural backgrounds, across different child ages and in the context of typically developing children as well as children with special needs suggest that coherence can be reliably evaluated using the FMSS procedure. Furthermore, parents&#8217; FMSS-Coherence is associated with parenting quality and children&#8217;s socio-emotional adjustment. Thus, it holds promise for researchers and practitioners who seek a relatively time- and cost-effective method for assessing the coherence of parents&#8217; narratives regarding their child.

This paper introduces a method for assessing the coherence of parents' short narratives regarding their child and their relationship using the five-minute speech sample procedure.

Valid and efficient measures for assessing the quality of parent-child relationships are needed to facilitate research and evidence-based practice with ...

Using a Virtual Reality Walking Simulator to Investigate Pedestrian Behavior

To cross a road successfully, individuals must coordinate their movements with moving vehicles. This paper describes use of a walking simulator in which people walk on a treadmill to intercept gaps between two moving vehicles in an immersive virtual environment. Virtual reality allows for a safe and ecologically varied investigation of gap crossing behavior. Manipulating the initial starting distance can further the understanding of a participant&#8217;s speed regulation while approaching a gap. The speed profile may be assessed for various gap crossing variables, such as initial distance, vehicle size, and gap size. Each walking simulation results in a position/time series that can inform how velocity is adjusted differently depending on the gap characteristics. This methodology can be used by researchers investigating pedestrian behavior and behavioral dynamics while employing human participants in a safe and realistic setting.

This protocol describes use of a walking simulator that serves as a safe and ecologically valid method to study pedestrian behavior in the presence of moving traffic.

To cross a road successfully, individuals must coordinate their movements with moving vehicles. This paper describes use of a walking simulator in which ...