We thank the UCLA Biomedical Cyclotron Facility and Dr. Roger Slavik and Dr. Giuseppe Carlucci for generously providing [18F]fluoride for these studies and the UCLA NanoLab for support with equipment for chip fabrication.

CAUTION: This protocol involves the handling of radioactive materials. Experiments should not be undertaken without the necessary training and personal protective equipment and approval from the radiation safety office at your organization. Experiments should be performed behind radiation shielding, preferably in a ventilated hot cell
1. Fabrication of multi-reaction chips
NOTE: Batches of multi-reaction microdroplet chips are fabricated from 4&#34; silicon wafers using standard photolithography techniques, as previously decribed10 (Figure 1). This procedure will produce 7 chips each with 4 x 4 array of reaction sites.
<ol>
	<li>Place silicon wafer on the spin-coater chuck, ensuring that it is centered. Deposit 3 mL of polytetrafluoroethylene solution at the center of the wafer with a transfer pipette and coat wafer at a 1000 rpm for 30 s (500 rpm/s ramp).</li>
	<li>To solidify the coating, place the wafer on a 160 &#176;C hotplate for 10 min and then transfer to a 245 &#176;C hotplate for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Anneal the coating in a high-temperature oven at 340 &#176;C for 3.5 h under nitrogen atmosphere, followed by cooling to 70 &#176;C at a 10 &#176;C/min ramp.</li>
	<li>Place the silicon wafer on the spin-coater chuck, ensuring that it is centered. Pour 2 mL of positive photoresist at the center of the wafer using a transfer pipette, and then perform coating at 3000 rpm for 30 s (1000 rpm/s ramp).</li>
	<li>Solidify the photoresist by performing a soft bake of the wafer on a 115 &#176;C hotplate for 3 min.</li>
	<li>Install the wafer and photomask in a mask aligner and perform a 14 s exposure at 12 mW/cm2 lamp intensity and 356 nm wavelength in hard contact mode. This step uses a transparency mask containing the negative final polytetrafluoroethylene pattern, i.e., a 4&#34; diameter pattern of 4 copies of the 16-reaction chip, with reaction sites transparent and all other regions in opaque color.</li>
	<li>Submerge the wafer using 20 mL of photoresist developer solution in a glass container for 3 min with slight agitation to develop the exposed pattern.</li>
	<li>Rinse away the developing solution by submerging the wafer in a glass container with 20 mL of DI water for 3 min with slight agitation. Dry the wafer with a nitrogen gun.</li>
	<li>Remove the exposed polytetrafluoroethylene regions via reactive-ion etching (RIE) with oxygen plasma under the following conditions: 30 s exposure, 100 mTorr pressure, 200 W power, and 50 sccm oxygen flow.</li>
	<li>Dice the wafer into individual chips (7 total per wafer) using a silicon wafer cutter.</li>
	<li>Submerge each chip in acetone for 1 min to remove the photoresist, then isopropanol for 1 min. Finally, dry each chip with a nitrogen gun.</li>
	<li>Place dry chips in a glass container and cover with aluminum foil for storage until use.</li>
</ol>
2. Planning of the optimization study
NOTE: In this protocol, synthesis of the radiopharmaceutical [18F]fallypride is used as an example to illustrate high-throughput optimization (Figure 2). With a single chip, 16 simultaneous reactions can be performed, for example, with varied precursor concentration (8 different concentrations, n=2 replicates each). The conditions are mapped to reaction sites in Figure 3A. Adjustments can be made to this protocol to optimize other reaction parameters (e.g. reaction solvent, reaction volume, amount of TBAHCO3, etc.) or other radiopharmaceuticals.
<ol>
	<li>Select the reaction parameter(s) to be varied, the specific values to be used, and the number of replicates.</li>
	<li>Compute the number of chips needed to perform the experiment.</li>
	<li>For each chip, prepare a map of which reaction conditions will be used at each reaction site to assist with reagent preparation and performing the droplet reactions.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of reagents and materials for optimizing the radiosynthesis of [18F]fallypride
NOTE: The droplet-based radiosynthesis of [18F]fallypride (Figure 2) begins with the addition of [18F]fluoride and phase transfer catalyst (TBAHCO3) to the reaction site, followed by heating to evaporate water and leave a dried residue. Next, a droplet of precursor (tosyl-fallypride) in reaction solvent (thexyl alcohol and acetonitrile) is added and heated to perform the radiofluorination reaction. Finally, the crude product is collected from the chip for analysis. The reagent preparation and synthesis procedures should be adapted if performing optimization of a different tracer.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a stock solution of the reaction solvent, consisting of thexyl alcohol and acetonitrile in a 1:1 by volume mixture. Ensure that the volume is enough to create the planned dilution series. In this example optimization, ~30 &#181;L is sufficient.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 30 &#181;L stock solution of precursor (tosyl-fallypride) in the reaction solvent with the maximum concentration to be explored (77 mM). Ensure that the volume is enough to perform the planned experiment. In this example optimization, ~30 &#181;L is sufficient.</li>
	<li>From the precursor stock solution and reaction solvent, perform 2x serial dilutions to prepare the different concentrations of the precursor solution. Ensure that the volume of each dilution is enough to perform the desired number of replicates for each condition. In this example optimization, ~15 &#181;L of each concentration is sufficient.</li>
	<li>Prepare microcentrifuge tubes to collect each crude reaction product using a permanent marker to label each tube with a unique number. Ensure that the total number of microcentrifuge tubes matches the number of conditions multiplied by the number of replicates (8 x 2 = 16).</li>
	<li>Prepare a stock of collection solution (10 mL) comprising 9:1 methanol:DI water (v/v). Aliquot 50 &#181;L into each of 16 additional labeled microcentrifuge tubes (one per reaction site on the chip).</li>
	<li>Prepare a [18F]fluoride stock solution in a 500 &#181;L microcentrifuge tube by mixing [18F]fluoride/[18O]H2O (~260 MBq [7 mCi]) with 75 mM TBAHCO3 solution (56 &#181;L) and diluting with DI water up to 140 &#181;L. 8 &#181;L of this solution will be loaded to each reaction site (containing ~15 MBq [0.40 mCi] of activity, and 240 nmol of TBAHCO3).</li>
</ol>
4. Parallel synthesis of [18F]fallypride with different precursor concentrations
NOTE: The chip is operated atop a heating platform (constructed as previously described13) consisting of a 25 mm x 25 mm ceramic heater, controlled using an on-off temperature controller using the internal thermocouple signal for feedback. Heater surface temperatures were calibrated using thermal imaging. If such a platform is not available, a pair of hot plates can be used (one at 105 &#176;C and one at 110 &#176;C).
<ol>
	<li>Load [18F]fluoride stock solution (with phase transfer catalyst).
	<ol>
		<li>Using a micropipette, load an 8 &#181;L droplet of [18F]fluoride stock solution on the first reaction spot of a multi-reaction chip. Measure the activity of the chip by placing it in a dose calibrator and record the time at which measurement is conducted.</li>
		<li>Remove the chip from dose calibrator and then load an 8 &#181;L droplet of [18F]fluoride stock solution on the second reaction spot. Measure the activity on the chip by placing it once again in the dose calibrator and record the time at which measurement is conducted.</li>
		<li>Repeat for all other reaction sites on the chip.</li>
		<li>Calculate the activity loaded per reaction spot by taking the activity measurement after loading the radioisotope and subtracting the previous measurement (decay-corrected) before that site was loaded.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Align the multi-reaction chip on the heater.
	<ol>
		<li>Add a thin layer of thermal paste on top of the ceramic heater.</li>
		<li>Carefully place the chip on top of the heater using tweezers to avoid the spill of the droplets, aligning the reference corner of the chip with the reference corner of the heater (as shown in Figure 3B). The chip will overhang the heater by a small amount.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Dry the [18F]fluoride and phase transfer catalyst.
	<ol>
		<li>Heat the chip for 1 min by setting the heater to 105 &#176;C in the control program to evaporate the droplets to dryness leaving a dried residue of [18F]fluoride and TBHACO3. After 1 min, cool the chip by turning off the heater and turning on the cooling fan with the control program.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add the precursor solution.
	<ol>
		<li>Using a micropipette, add a 6 &#181;L solution of fallypride precursor on top of the dried residue on the first reaction site.</li>
		<li>Repeat for all other reaction sites on the chip. Use the optimization plan to determine which concentration of the dilution series is used for each reaction site.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform fluorination reaction.
	<ol>
		<li>Heat each chip to 110 &#176;C for 7 min using the control program to perform radiofluorination reaction. Afterwards, cool the chip by turning off the heater and turning on cooling fan with the control program.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect the crude products from the reaction sites.
	<ol>
		<li>Collect the crude product at the first reaction site by adding 10 &#181;L of collection solution from the designated microcentrifuge tube via micropipette. After waiting for 5 s, use the micropipette (with the same tip installed) to aspirate the diluted crude product and transfer to its corresponding labeled collection microcentrifuge tube.</li>
		<li>Repeat this process a total of 4 times using the same pipette tip for all operations.</li>
		<li>Repeat the collection process for all other reaction sites on the chip.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Synthesis analysis to determine reaction performance and optimal conditions
<ol>
	<li>Determine the &#34;collection efficiency&#34; for the first reaction on the chip.
	<ol>
		<li>Place the microcentrifuge tube with the collected crude product of the first reaction spot in the dose calibrator to measure the activity. Record the measurement and time of the measurement.&#160;</li>
		<li>Calculate the collection efficiency by dividing the activity of the collected crude product by the starting activity measured for the same reaction site (decay-correcting the activity values to the same timepoint).</li>
		<li>Repeat for all other reaction sites on the chip.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze the composition (fluorination efficiency) of each collected crude product. 
	NOTE: To make practical the analysis of all samples in a short time, fluorination efficiency is analyzed using a previously described high-throughput radio-thin layer chromatography (radio-TLC) approach14. This technique allows up to eight samples to be processed in parallel by spotting then side by side (5 mm pitch, 0.5 &#181;L per spot) on a single TLC plate, then developing together, and performing readout together using Cerenkov imaging14, 15. For the example optimization with 16 parallel reactions, 2 TLC plates are needed. Another option is to use radio- high-performance liquid chromatography (radio-HPLC) for analysis, though the time for separation, cleaning, and equilibration may limit the number of samples that can be analyzed.
	<ol>
		<li>For each TLC plate (50 mm x 60 mm), with a pencil, draw a line at 15 mm away from one 50 mm edge (bottom), and another line 50 mm away from the same edge. The first line is the origin line; the second is the solvent front line. Draw 8 small &#34;X&#34;s along the origin line at 5 mm spacing to define the sample spotting position for each of 8 &#34;lanes&#34;.</li>
		<li>Using a micropipette, transfer 0.5 &#181;L of the first crude product onto the TLC plate at the &#34;X&#34; for the first lane. Repeat for additional crude products (up to 8 per TLC plate). Wait for the crude product spots to dry on the TLC plate.</li>
		<li>For each TLC plate, develop using a mobile phase of 60% MeCN in 25 mM NH4HCO2 with 1% TEA (v/v) until the solvent front reaches the solvent front line. Wait for the solvent on the TLC plate to dry and then cover with a glass microscope slide (76.2 mm x 50.8 mm, 1 mm thick).</li>
		<li>Obtain a radioactivity image of each TLC plate by placing the plate in a Cerenkov imaging system for a 5 min exposure. Perform standard image corrections (dark current subtraction, flat field correction, median filtering, and background subtraction).</li>
		<li>Use region of interest (ROI) analysis for the first lane of the first TLC plate. Draw regions around each band visible in the lane. The software will compute the fraction of integrated intensity of each region (band) compared to the total integrated intensity of all regions (bands).</li>
		<li>With this mobile phase, the following bands are expected at the indicated retention factors: Rf = 0.0: Unreacted [18F]fluoride; Rf = 0.9: [18F]fallypride; Rf = 0.94: Side product. Determine the fluorination efficiency as the fraction of activity in the [18F]fallypride band.</li>
		<li>Repeat this analysis for all other lanes on all TLC plates. 
		&#8203;NOTE: If a Cerenkov imaging chamber is not available, a small animal (preclinical) in vivo optical imaging system can be used to image the TLC plates. Alternatively, a 2-dimensional TLC scanner can be used. Alternatively, if only a 1-dimensional TLC scanner is available, the TLC plates can be analyzed by cutting into strips with scissors (1 per lane), and scanning each strip individually.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the crude radiochemical yield (crude RCY) for each reaction site.
	<ol>
		<li>Determine the crude RCY for the first crude product by multiplying the collection efficiency by the fluorination efficiency.</li>
		<li>Repeat for all other reaction sites.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze the results
	<ol>
		<li>Aggregate values for any replicate experiments into an average and standard deviation.</li>
		<li>Plot the collection efficiency, fluorination efficiency, and crude RCY as a function of the parameter that was varied (precursor concentration in this example).</li>
		<li>Select the optimal conditions based on the desired criteria. Typically, this is the maximum crude RCY. Additionally, the point is often chosen in a region where the slope of the graph is relatively flat, indicating it is insensitive to small changes in the parameter, providing a more robust protocol.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Physics in Nuclear Medicine. , (2012).</li><li>Knapp, K. -. A., Nickels, M. L., Manning, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+current+role+of+microfluidics+in+radiofluorination+chemistry.">The current role of microfluidics in radiofluorination chemistry.</a> Molecular Imaging and Biology. 22 (3), 463-475 (2020).</li><li>Rensch, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidics:+A+groundbreaking+technology+for+PET+tracer+production.">Microfluidics: A groundbreaking technology for PET tracer production.</a> Molecules. 18 (7), 7930-7956 (2013).</li><li>Pascali, G., Watts, P., Salvadori, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidics+in+radiopharmaceutical+chemistry.">Microfluidics in radiopharmaceutical chemistry.</a> Nuclear Medicine and Biology. 40 (6), 776-787 (2013).</li><li>Keng, P. Y., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Digital+microfluidics:+A+new+paradigm+for+radiochemistry.">Digital microfluidics: A new paradigm for radiochemistry.</a> Molecular Imaging. 14, 579-594 (2015).</li><li>Wang, J., Chao, P. H., Janet, S., van Dam, R. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Green+and+efficient+synthesis+of+the+radiopharmaceutical+[18F]FDOPA+using+a+microdroplet+reactor.">Green and efficient synthesis of the radiopharmaceutical [18F]FDOPA using a microdroplet reactor.</a> Reaction Chemistry &amp; Engineering. 5 (2), 320-329 (2020).</li><li>Lisova, K., Wang, J., Rios, A., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptation+and+optimization+of+[F-18]+Florbetaben+([F-18]+FBB)+radiosynthesis+to+a+microdroplet+reactor.">Adaptation and optimization of [F-18] Florbetaben ([F-18] FBB) radiosynthesis to a microdroplet reactor.</a> Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals. 62, 353-354 (2019).</li><li>Wang, J., Chao, P. H., Slavik, R., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-GBq+production+of+the+radiotracer+[18F]fallypride+in+a+droplet+microreactor.">Multi-GBq production of the radiotracer [18F]fallypride in a droplet microreactor.</a> RSC Advances. 10 (13), 7828-7838 (2020).</li></ol>

The Regents of the University of California have licensed technology to Sofie, Inc. that was invented by Dr. van Dam, and have taken equity in Sofie, Inc. as part of the licensing transaction. Dr. van Dam is a founder and consultant of Sofie, Inc. The remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest. This work was supported in part by the National Cancer Institute (R33 240201).

Due to limitations of conventional radiochemistry systems that allow only one or a small number of reactions per day and consume a significant quantity of reagents per data point, only a tiny portion of the overall reaction parameter space can be explored in practice, and many times results are reported with no repeats (n=1). Compared to conventional systems, this multi-reaction droplet radiosynthesis platform makes it practical to accomplish more comprehensive and rigorous studies of radiosynthesis conditions while cons...

Positron-emission tomography (PET) radiopharmaceuticals are widely used as research tools to monitor specific in vivo biochemical processes and study diseases, and for the development of new drugs and therapies. Moreover, PET is a critical tool for diagnosing or staging disease and monitoring a patient&#39;s response to therapy1,2,3. Due to the short half-life of PET radioisotopes (e.g., 110 min for fluorine-18-labeled radiopharmaceuticals) and radiation hazard, these compounds are prepared using specialized automated systems operating behind radiation shielding and must be prepared just before use.
Current systems used to synthesize radiopharmaceuticals are designed to produce large batches that are divided up into many individual doses to share the production cost. While current systems are suitable for the production of widely used radiotracers like [18F]FDG (because multiple patient scans and research experiments can be scheduled in a single day), these systems can be wasteful for the production of novel radiotracers during early-stage development, or less commonly used radiotracers. Volumes that conventional systems use are typically in the 1-5 mL range, and the reactions require precursor amounts in the 1-10 mg range. Furthermore, using conventional radiosynthesizers is generally cumbersome during optimization studies since the apparatus becomes contaminated after use and the user must wait for radioactivity to decay before performing the next experiment. Aside from equipment cost, the cost of the radioisotope and reagents can, therefore, become very substantial for studies requiring production of multiple batches. This can occur, for example, during the optimization of synthesis protocols for novel radiotracers to achieve sufficient yield and reliability for initial in vivo imaging studies.
Microfluidic technologies have been increasingly used in radiochemistry to capitalize on several advantages over conventional systems4,5,6. Microfluidic platforms, including those based on 1-10 &#181;L reaction volumes7,8,9, have shown a significant reduction of reagent volumes and consumption of expensive precursors, as well as short reaction times. These reductions lead to lower costs, faster heating and evaporation steps, shorter and more straightforward downstream purification, an overall &#34;greener&#34; chemistry process10, and higher molar activity of the produced radiotracers11. These improvements make it more practical to perform more extensive optimization studies by lowering the reagent cost of each synthesis. Further benefits can be achieved by performing multiple experiments from a single batch of radioisotope in a single day. For example, microfluidic flow chemistry radiosynthesizers operating in &#34;discovery mode&#34; can sequentially perform dozens of reactions, each using only 10s of &#181;L reaction volume12.
Inspired by these advantages, a multi-reaction droplet array chip in which microvolume reactions are confined to an array of surface-tension traps on a silicon surface, created using a patterned Teflon coating, was developed. These chips enable multiple reactions at the 1-20 &#181;L scale to be performed simultaneously, opening the possibility to explore 10s of different reaction conditions per day, each with multiple replicates. In this paper, the utility of this new high-throughput approach for performing rapid and low-cost radiochemistry optimizations is demonstrated. Using multi-reaction droplet chips allows for convenient exploration of the impact of reagent concentrations and reaction solvent, and the use of multiple chips could enable the study of reaction temperature and time, all while consuming very low amounts of precursor.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol (thexyl alcohol)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>594-60-5</td>
			<td>98%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>KMG Chemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Cleanroom LP grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium formate (NH4HCO2)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>540-69-2</td>
			<td>97%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrous acetonitrile (MeCN)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75-05-8</td>
			<td>99.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ceramic heater</td>
			<td>Watlow</td>
			<td>Utramic CER-1-01-0093</td>
			<td>25 mm x 25 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cerenkov imaging chamber</td>
			<td>Custom built</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Other instruments can be used for TLC plate readout including: small animal in vivo optical imaging system, 2D radio-TLC scanner, 1D radio-TLC scanner</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DI water</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7732-18-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable transfer pipets, 3 mL</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>13-680-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dose calibrator</td>
			<td>Capintec, Inc.</td>
			<td>CRC-25 PET</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fallypride</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>1560.0010.000</td>
			<td>Fallypride reference standard, &#62;95%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>[18F]fluoride in [18O]H2O</td>
			<td>UCLA Ahmanson Biomedical Cyclotron Facility</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Due to short half-life this must be obtained from local radiochemistry lab or commercial radiopharmacy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cover plates (76.2 mm x 50.8 mm x 1 mm thick)</td>
			<td>C&#38;A Scientific</td>
			<td>6101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headway spin coater</td>
			<td>Headway Research, Inc.</td>
			<td>PWM50-PS-R790 Sipinner system</td>
			<td>PWM50-control box, PS-motor, R790-bowl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High temperature oven</td>
			<td>Carbolite</td>
			<td>HTCR 6 28</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>Super-Nuova HP133425</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol (IPA)</td>
			<td>KMG Chemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Cleanroom LP grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mask aligner</td>
			<td>Karl Suss</td>
			<td>MA/BA6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol (MeOH)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>67-56-1</td>
			<td>&#8805;99.9%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>0030 123.301</td>
			<td>500 &#181;L, colorless, polypropylene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (0.5-10 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (100-1000 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (10-100 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (0.1-10 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>USA Scientific Inc Tips</td>
			<td>11113810</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (2-200 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>BrandTech</td>
			<td>13-889-143</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (50-1000 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>BrandTech</td>
			<td>13-889-145</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoresist developer solution</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>MEGAPOSIT MF-26A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Positive photoresist</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>MEGAPOSIT 220-7.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reactive-ion etcher (RIE)</td>
			<td>Oxford Instruments</td>
			<td>Plasma Lab 80 Plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer cutter</td>
			<td>Euro Tool</td>
			<td>CSCB-431.00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer; 4&#34; diameter</td>
			<td>Silicon Valley Microelectronics Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>0017227-048</td>
			<td>P type, boron doped, thickness 525 &#177; 25 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon AF 2400</td>
			<td>Chemours&#160;</td>
			<td>D14896765</td>
			<td>1% solids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetrabutylammonium bicarbonate (TBAHCO3)</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>808</td>
			<td>Aqueous solution stabilized with ethanol, 0.075 M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Themal conducting paste</td>
			<td>OMEGA</td>
			<td>OT-201-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC plates</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA</td>
			<td>1.05554.0001</td>
			<td>Silica gel 60 F254, 50 mm x 60 mm, aluminum back</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tosyl-fallypride</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>1550.004.000</td>
			<td>Fallypride precursor, &#62;90%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trimethylamine (TEA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75-50-3</td>
			<td>&#8805; 99%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>UX-07387-08</td>
			<td>Stainless steel, fine tip</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optimization of radiochemical reactions using droplet arrays

Current automated radiosynthesizers are designed to produce large clinical batches of radiopharmaceuticals. They are not well suited for reaction optimization or novel radiopharmaceutical development since each data point involves significant reagent consumption, and contamination of the apparatus requires time for radioactive decay before the next use. To address these limitations, a platform for performing arrays of miniature droplet-based reactions in parallel, each confined within a surface-tension trap on a patterned polytetrafluoroethylene-coated silicon "chip", was developed. These chips enable rapid and convenient studies of reaction parameters including reagent concentrations, reaction solvent, reaction temperature and time. This platform permits the completion of hundreds of reactions in a few days with minimal reagent consumption, instead of taking months using a conventional radiosynthesizer.

A representative experiment was performed to illustrate this method. Using 16 reactions, optimization studies of the radiopharmaceutical [18F]fallypride were performed by varying precursor concentration (77, 39, 19, 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, 1.2, and 0.6 mM) in thexyl alcohol:MeCN (1:1, v/v) as the reaction solvent. Reactions were performed at 110 &#176;C for 7 min. Collection efficiency, sample composition (i.e., proportions of [18F]fallypride product, unreacted [18...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays at JoVE.com

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

This method describes the use of a novel high-throughput methodology, based on droplet chemical reactions, for the rapid and economical optimization of radiopharmaceuticals using nanomole amounts of reagents.

Current automated radiosynthesizers are designed to produce large clinical batches of radiopharmaceuticals. They are not well suited for reaction ...

optimization-of-radiochemical-reactions-using-droplet-arrays

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

3.3K Views.  University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). This method describes the use of a novel high-throughput methodology, based on droplet chemical reactions, for the rapid and economical optimization of radiopharmaceuticals using nanomole amounts of reagents.

Video: Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

Microwave-assisted Intramolecular Dehydrogenative Diels-Alder Reactions for the Synthesis of Functionalized Naphthalenes/Solvatochromic Dyes

Functionalized naphthalenes have applications in a variety of research fields ranging from the synthesis of natural or biologically active molecules to the preparation of new organic dyes. Although numerous strategies have been reported to access naphthalene scaffolds, many procedures still present limitations in terms of incorporating functionality, which in turn narrows the range of available substrates. The development of versatile methods for direct access to substituted naphthalenes is therefore highly desirable.
The Diels-Alder (DA) cycloaddition reaction is a powerful and attractive method for the formation of saturated and unsaturated ring systems from readily available starting materials. A new microwave-assisted intramolecular dehydrogenative DA reaction of styrenyl derivatives described herein generates a variety of functionalized cyclopenta[b]naphthalenes that could not be prepared using existing synthetic methods. When compared to conventional heating, microwave irradiation accelerates reaction rates, enhances yields, and limits the formation of undesired byproducts.
The utility of this protocol is further demonstrated by the conversion of a DA cycloadduct into a novel solvatochromic fluorescent dye via a Buchwald-Hartwig palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction. Fluorescence spectroscopy, as an informative and sensitive analytical technique, plays a key role in research fields including environmental science, medicine, pharmacology, and cellular biology. Access to a variety of new organic fluorophores provided by the microwave-assisted dehydrogenative DA reaction allows for further advancement in these fields.

Microwave-assisted intramolecular dehydrogenative Diels-Alder (DA) reactions provide concise access to functionalized cyclopenta[b]naphthalene building blocks. The utility of this methodology is demonstrated by one-step conversion of the dehydrogenative DA cycloadducts into novel solvatochromic fluorescent dyes via Buchwald-Hartwig palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions.

Functionalized naphthalenes have applications in a variety of research fields ranging from the synthesis of natural or biologically active molecules to ...

Retropinacol/Cross-pinacol Coupling Reactions - A Catalytic Access to 1,2-Unsymmetrical Diols

Unsymmetrical 1,2-diols are hardly accessible by reductive pinacol coupling processes. A successful execution of such a transformation is bound to a clear recognition and strict differentiation of two similar carbonyl compounds (aldehydes &#8594; secondary 1,2-diols or ketones &#8594; tertiary 1,2-diols). This fine-tuning is still a challenge and an unsolved problem for an organic chemist. There exist several reports on successful execution of this transformation but they cannot be generalized. Herein we describe a catalytic direct pinacol coupling process which proceeds via a retropinacol/cross-pinacol coupling sequence. Thus, unsymmetrical substituted 1,2-diols can be accessed with almost quantitative yields by means of an&#160;operationally simple performance under very mild conditions. Artificial techniques, such as syringe-pump techniques or delayed additions of reactants are not necessary. The procedure we describe provides a very rapid access to cross-pinacol products (1,2-diols, vicinal diols). A further extension of this new process, e.g. an enantioselective performance could provide a very useful tool for the synthesis of unsymmetrical chiral 1,2-diols.

A novel account for the synthesis of unsymmetrical 1,2-diols based on a retropinacol/cross-pinacol coupling mechanism is described. Due to the catalytic execution of this reaction a considerable improvement compared to conventional cross-pinacol couplings is achieved.

Unsymmetrical 1,2-diols are hardly accessible by reductive pinacol coupling processes. A successful execution of such a transformation is bound to a clear ...

Hot Biological Catalysis: Isothermal Titration Calorimetry to Characterize Enzymatic Reactions

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a well-described technique that measures the heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction, using it as an intrinsic probe to characterize virtually every chemical process. Nowadays, this technique is extensively applied to determine thermodynamic parameters of biomolecular binding equilibria. In addition, ITC has been demonstrated to be able of directly measuring kinetics and thermodynamic parameters (kcat, KM, &#916;H) of enzymatic reactions, even though this application is still underexploited. As heat changes spontaneously occur during enzymatic catalysis, ITC does not require any modification or labeling of the system under analysis and can be performed in solution. Moreover, the method needs little amount of material. These properties make ITC an invaluable, powerful and unique tool to study enzyme kinetics in several applications, such as, for example, drug discovery.
In this work an experimental ITC-based method to quantify kinetics and thermodynamics of enzymatic reactions is thoroughly described. This method is applied to determine kcat and KM of the enzymatic hydrolysis of urea by Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean) urease. Calculation of intrinsic molar enthalpy (&#916;Hint) of the reaction is performed. The values thus obtained are consistent with previous data reported in literature, demonstrating the reliability of the methodology.

Isothermal titration calorimetry measures heat flow released or absorbed in chemical reactions. This method can be used to quantify enzyme-catalysis. In this paper, the protocol for instrumental setup, experiment running, and data analysis is generally described, and applied to the characterization of enzymatic urea hydrolysis by jack bean urease.

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a well-described technique that measures the heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction, using it as ...

Real-time Monitoring of Reactions Performed Using Continuous-flow Processing: The Preparation of 3-Acetylcoumarin as an Example

By using inline monitoring, it is possible to optimize reactions performed using continuous-flow processing in a simple and rapid way. It is also possible to ensure consistent product quality over time using this technique. We here show how to interface a commercially available flow unit with a Raman spectrometer. The Raman flow cell is placed after the back-pressure regulator, meaning that it can be operated at atmospheric pressure. In addition, the fact that the product stream passes through a length of tubing before entering the flow cell means that the material is at RT. It is important that the spectra are acquired under isothermal conditions since Raman signal intensity is temperature dependent. Having assembled the apparatus, we then show how to monitor a chemical reaction, the piperidine-catalyzed synthesis of 3-acetylcoumarin from salicylaldehyde and ethyl acetoacetate being used as an example. The reaction can be performed over a range of flow rates and temperatures, the in-situ monitoring tool being used to optimize conditions simply and easily.

Real-time monitoring allows for fast optimization of reactions performed using continuous-flow processing. Here the preparation of 3-acetylcoumarin is used as an example. The apparatus for performing in-situ Raman monitoring is described, as are the steps required to optimize the reaction.

By using inline monitoring, it is possible to optimize reactions performed using continuous-flow processing in a simple and rapid way. It is also possible ...

Optimization of Synthetic Proteins: Identification of Interpositional Dependencies Indicating Structurally and/or Functionally Linked Residues

Protein alignments are commonly used to evaluate the similarity of protein residues, and the derived consensus sequence used for identifying functional units (e.g., domains). Traditional consensus-building models fail to account for interpositional dependencies &#8211; functionally required covariation of residues that tend to appear simultaneously throughout evolution and across the phylogentic tree. These relationships can reveal important clues about the processes of protein folding, thermostability, and the formation of functional sites, which in turn can be used to inform the engineering of synthetic proteins. Unfortunately, these relationships essentially form sub-motifs which cannot be predicted by simple &#8220;majority rule&#8221; or even HMM-based consensus models, and the result can be a biologically invalid &#8220;consensus&#8221; which is not only never seen in nature but is less viable than any extant protein. We have developed a visual analytics tool, StickWRLD, which creates an interactive 3D representation of a protein alignment and clearly displays covarying residues. The user has the ability to pan and zoom, as well as dynamically change the statistical threshold underlying the identification of covariants. StickWRLD has previously been successfully used to identify functionally-required covarying residues in proteins such as Adenylate Kinase and in DNA sequences such as endonuclease target sites.

Synthetic protein sequences based on consensus motifs typically ignore co-evolving residues, that imply interpositional dependencies (IPDs). IPDs can be essential to activity, and designs that disregard them may result in suboptimal results. This protocol uses StickWRLD to identify IPDs and help inform rational protein design, resulting in more efficient results.

Protein alignments are commonly used to evaluate the similarity of protein residues, and the derived consensus sequence used for identifying functional ...

Curtain Flow Column: Optimization of Efficiency and Sensitivity

Active Flow Technology (AFT) is a form of column technology that increases the separation performance of a HPLC column through the use of a specially purpose built multiport end-fitting(s). Curtain Flow (CF) columns belong to the AFT suite of columns, specifically the CF column is designed so that the sample is injected into the radial central region of the bed and a curtain flow of mobile phase surrounding the injection of solute prevents the radial dispersion of the sample to the wall. The column functions as an 'infinite diameter' column. The purpose of the design is to overcome the radial heterogeneity of the column bed, and at the same time maximize the sample load into the radial central region of the column bed, which serves to increase detection sensitivity. The protocol described herein outlines the system and CF column set up and the tuning process for an optimized infinite diameter 'virtual' column.

Here, we present a protocol for the operation and optimization of Active Flow Technology (AFT) column in Curtain flow (CF) mode for enhanced separation performance.

Active Flow Technology (AFT) is a form of column technology that increases the separation performance of a HPLC column through the use of a specially ...

A Protocol for Safe Lithiation Reactions Using Organolithium Reagents

Organolithium reagents are powerful tools in the synthetic chemist&#39;s toolbox. However, the extreme pyrophoric nature of the most reactive reagents warrants proper technique, thorough training, and proper personal protective equipment. To aid in the training of researchers using organolithium reagents, a thorough, step-by-step protocol for the safe and effective use of tert-butyllithium on an inert gas line or within a glovebox is described. As a model reaction, preparation of lithium tert-butyl amide by the reaction of tert-butyl amine with one equivalent of tert-butyl lithium is presented.

The safe and proper use of organolithium reagents is described.

Organolithium reagents are powerful tools in the synthetic chemist&#39;s toolbox. However, the extreme pyrophoric nature of the most reactive reagents ...

Synthesis of Platinum-nickel Nanowires and Optimization for Oxygen Reduction Performance

Platinum-nickel (Pt-Ni) nanowires were developed as fuel cell electrocatalysts, and were optimized for the performance and durability in the oxygen reduction reaction. Spontaneous galvanic displacement was used to deposit Pt layers onto Ni nanowire substrates. The synthesis approach produced catalysts with high specific activities and high Pt surface areas. Hydrogen annealing improved Pt and Ni mixing and specific activity. Acid leaching was used to preferentially remove Ni near the nanowire surface, and oxygen annealing was used to stabilize near-surface Ni, improving durability and minimizing Ni dissolution. These protocols detail the optimization of each post-synthesis processing step, including hydrogen annealing to 250 &#176;C, exposure to 0.1 M nitric acid, and oxygen annealing to 175 &#176;C. Through these steps, Pt-Ni nanowires produced increased activities more than an order of magnitude than Pt nanoparticles, while offering significant durability improvements. The presented protocols are based on Pt-Ni systems in the development of fuel cell catalysts. These techniques have also been used for a variety of metal combinations, and can be applied to develop catalysts for a number of electrochemical processes.

&#160; The protocol describes the synthesis and electrochemical testing of platinum-nickel nanowires. Nanowires were synthesized by the galvanic displacement of a nickel nanowire template. Post-synthesis processing, including hydrogen annealing, acid leaching, and oxygen annealing were used to optimize nanowire performance and durability in the oxygen reduction reaction.

Platinum-nickel (Pt-Ni) nanowires were developed as fuel cell electrocatalysts, and were optimized for the performance and durability in the oxygen ...

Enzymatic Cascade Reactions for the Synthesis of Chiral Amino Alcohols from L-lysine

Amino alcohols are versatile compounds with a wide range of applications. For instance, they have been used as chiral scaffolds in organic synthesis. Their synthesis by conventional organic chemistry often requires tedious multi-step synthesis processes, with difficult control of the stereochemical outcome. We present a protocol to enzymatically synthetize amino alcohols starting from the readily available L-lysine in 48 h. This protocol combines two chemical reactions that are very difficult to conduct by conventional organic synthesis. In the first step, the regio- and diastereoselective oxidation of an unactivated C-H bond of the lysine side-chain is catalyzed by a dioxygenase; a second regio- and diastereoselective oxidation catalyzed by a regiodivergent dioxygenase can lead to the formation of the 1,2-diols. In the last step, the carboxylic group of the alpha amino acid is cleaved by a pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP) decarboxylase (DC). This decarboxylative step only affects the alpha carbon of the amino acid, retaining the hydroxy-substituted stereogenic center in a beta/gamma position. The resulting amino alcohols are therefore optically enriched. The protocol was successfully applied to the semipreparative-scale synthesis of four amino alcohols. Monitoring of the reactions was conducted by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after derivatization by 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. Straightforward purification by solid-phase extraction (SPE) afforded the amino alcohols with excellent yields (93% to &#62;95%).

Chiral amino alcohols are versatile molecules for use as scaffolds in organic synthesis. Starting from L-lysine, we synthesize amino alcohols by an enzymatic cascade reaction combining diastereoselective C-H oxidation catalyzed by dioxygenase followed by cleavage of the carboxylic acid moiety of the corresponding hydroxyl amino acid by a decarboxylase.

Amino alcohols are versatile compounds with a wide range of applications. For instance, they have been used as chiral scaffolds in organic synthesis. ...

A Femtoliter Droplet Array for Massively Parallel Protein Synthesis from Single DNA Molecules

Advances in spatial resolution and detection sensitivity of scientific instrumentation make it possible to apply small reactors for biological and chemical research. To meet the demand for high-performance microreactors, we developed a femtoliter droplet array (FemDA) device and exemplified its application in massively parallel cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) reactions. Over one million uniform droplets were readily generated within a finger-sized area using a two-step oil-sealing protocol. Every droplet was anchored in a femtoliter microchamber composed of a hydrophilic bottom and a hydrophobic sidewall. The hybrid hydrophilic-in-hydrophobic structure and the dedicated sealing oils and surfactants are crucial for stably retaining the femtoliter aqueous solution in the femtoliter space without evaporation loss. The femtoliter configuration and the simple structure of the FemDA device allowed minimal reagent consumption. The uniform dimension of the droplet reactors made large-scale quantitative and time-course measurements convincing and reliable. The FemDA technology correlated the protein yield of the CFPS reaction with the number of DNA molecules in each droplet. We streamlined the procedures about the microfabrication of the device, the formation of the femtoliter droplets, and the acquisition and analysis of the microscopic image data. The detailed protocol with the optimized low running cost makes the FemDA technology accessible to everyone who has standard cleanroom facilities and a conventional fluorescence microscope in their own place.

The overall goal of the protocol is to prepare over one million ordered, uniform, stable, and biocompatible femtoliter droplets on a 1 cm2 planar substrate that can be used for cell-free protein synthesis.