Name: optimization of radiochemical reactions using droplet arrays
Uploaded: 2021-02-12T14:15:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays at JoVE.com

We thank the UCLA Biomedical Cyclotron Facility and Dr. Roger Slavik and Dr. Giuseppe Carlucci for generously providing [18F]fluoride for these studies and the UCLA NanoLab for support with equipment for chip fabrication.

CAUTION: This protocol involves the handling of radioactive materials. Experiments should not be undertaken without the necessary training and personal protective equipment and approval from the radiation safety office at your organization. Experiments should be performed behind radiation shielding, preferably in a ventilated hot cell
1. Fabrication of multi-reaction chips
NOTE: Batches of multi-reaction microdroplet chips are fabricated from 4&#34; silicon wafers usi...

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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+multi-reaction+microdroplet+platform+for+rapid+radiochemistry+optimization.">A novel multi-reaction microdroplet platform for rapid radiochemistry optimization.</a> RSC Advances. 9 (35), 20370-20374 (2019).</li><li>Sergeev, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Performing+radiosynthesis+in+microvolumes+to+maximize+molar+activity+of+tracers+for+positron+emission+tomography.">Performing radiosynthesis in microvolumes to maximize molar activity of tracers for positron emission tomography.</a> Communications Chemistry. 1 (1), 10 (2018).</li><li>Pascali, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+nucleophilic+18F+radiofluorinations+using+a+microfluidic+reaction+approach.">Optimization of nucleophilic 18F radiofluorinations using a microfluidic reaction approach.</a> Nature Protocols. 9 (9), 2017-2029 (2014).</li><li>Lisova, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microscale+radiosynthesis,+preclinical+imaging+and+dosimetry+study+of+[18F]AMBF3-TATE:+A+potential+PET+tracer+for+clinical+imaging+of+somatostatin+receptors.">Microscale radiosynthesis, preclinical imaging and dosimetry study of [18F]AMBF3-TATE: A potential PET tracer for clinical imaging of somatostatin receptors.</a> Nuclear Medicine and Biology. 61, 36-44 (2018).</li><li>Wang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+radio-TLC+analysis.">High-throughput radio-TLC analysis.</a> Nuclear Medicine and Biology. 82-83, 41-48 (2020).</li><li>Dooraghi, A. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+microfluidic+PET+tracer+synthesis+with+Cerenkov+imaging.">Optimization of microfluidic PET tracer synthesis with Cerenkov imaging.</a> Analyst. 138 (19), 5654-5664 (2013).</li><li>Collins, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+diverse+PET+probes+with+limited+resources:+24+18F-labeled+compounds+prepared+with+a+single+radiosynthesizer.">Production of diverse PET probes with limited resources: 24 18F-labeled compounds prepared with a single radiosynthesizer.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (43), 11309-11314 (2017).</li><li>Lazari, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fully+automated+production+of+diverse+18F-labeled+PET+tracers+on+the+ELIXYS+multireactor+radiosynthesizer+without+hardware+modification.">Fully automated production of diverse 18F-labeled PET tracers on the ELIXYS multireactor radiosynthesizer without hardware modification.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology. 42 (3), 203-210 (2014).</li><li>Lisova, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid,+efficient,+and+economical+synthesis+of+PET+tracers+in+a+droplet+microreactor:+application+to+O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine+([18F]FET).">Rapid, efficient, and economical synthesis of PET tracers in a droplet microreactor: application to O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine ([18F]FET).</a> EJNMMI Radiopharmacy and Chemistry. 5 (1), 1 (2019).</li><li>Wang, J., Holloway, T., Lisova, K., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Green+and+efficient+synthesis+of+the+radiopharmaceutical+[18F]FDOPA+using+a+microdroplet+reactor.">Green and efficient synthesis of the radiopharmaceutical [18F]FDOPA using a microdroplet reactor.</a> Reaction Chemistry &amp; Engineering. 5 (2), 320-329 (2020).</li><li>Lisova, K., Wang, J., Rios, A., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptation+and+optimization+of+[F-18]+Florbetaben+([F-18]+FBB)+radiosynthesis+to+a+microdroplet+reactor.">Adaptation and optimization of [F-18] Florbetaben ([F-18] FBB) radiosynthesis to a microdroplet reactor.</a> Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals. 62, 353-354 (2019).</li><li>Wang, J., Chao, P. H., Slavik, R., van Dam, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-GBq+production+of+the+radiotracer+[18F]fallypride+in+a+droplet+microreactor.">Multi-GBq production of the radiotracer [18F]fallypride in a droplet microreactor.</a> RSC Advances. 10 (13), 7828-7838 (2020).</li></ol>

Due to limitations of conventional radiochemistry systems that allow only one or a small number of reactions per day and consume a significant quantity of reagents per data point, only a tiny portion of the overall reaction parameter space can be explored in practice, and many times results are reported with no repeats (n=1). Compared to conventional systems, this multi-reaction droplet radiosynthesis platform makes it practical to accomplish more comprehensive and rigorous studies of radiosynthesis conditions while cons...

Positron-emission tomography (PET) radiopharmaceuticals are widely used as research tools to monitor specific in vivo biochemical processes and study diseases, and for the development of new drugs and therapies. Moreover, PET is a critical tool for diagnosing or staging disease and monitoring a patient&#39;s response to therapy1,2,3. Due to the short half-life of PET radioisotopes (e.g., 110 min for fluorine-18-labeled radiopharmaceuticals) and radiation hazard, these compounds are prepared using specialized automated systems operating behind radiation shielding and must be prepared just before use.
Current systems used to synthesize radiopharmaceuticals are designed to produce large batches that are divided up into many individual doses to share the production cost. While current systems are suitable for the production of widely used radiotracers like [18F]FDG (because multiple patient scans and research experiments can be scheduled in a single day), these systems can be wasteful for the production of novel radiotracers during early-stage development, or less commonly used radiotracers. Volumes that conventional systems use are typically in the 1-5 mL range, and the reactions require precursor amounts in the 1-10 mg range. Furthermore, using conventional radiosynthesizers is generally cumbersome during optimization studies since the apparatus becomes contaminated after use and the user must wait for radioactivity to decay before performing the next experiment. Aside from equipment cost, the cost of the radioisotope and reagents can, therefore, become very substantial for studies requiring production of multiple batches. This can occur, for example, during the optimization of synthesis protocols for novel radiotracers to achieve sufficient yield and reliability for initial in vivo imaging studies.
Microfluidic technologies have been increasingly used in radiochemistry to capitalize on several advantages over conventional systems4,5,6. Microfluidic platforms, including those based on 1-10 &#181;L reaction volumes7,8,9, have shown a significant reduction of reagent volumes and consumption of expensive precursors, as well as short reaction times. These reductions lead to lower costs, faster heating and evaporation steps, shorter and more straightforward downstream purification, an overall &#34;greener&#34; chemistry process10, and higher molar activity of the produced radiotracers11. These improvements make it more practical to perform more extensive optimization studies by lowering the reagent cost of each synthesis. Further benefits can be achieved by performing multiple experiments from a single batch of radioisotope in a single day. For example, microfluidic flow chemistry radiosynthesizers operating in &#34;discovery mode&#34; can sequentially perform dozens of reactions, each using only 10s of &#181;L reaction volume12.
Inspired by these advantages, a multi-reaction droplet array chip in which microvolume reactions are confined to an array of surface-tension traps on a silicon surface, created using a patterned Teflon coating, was developed. These chips enable multiple reactions at the 1-20 &#181;L scale to be performed simultaneously, opening the possibility to explore 10s of different reaction conditions per day, each with multiple replicates. In this paper, the utility of this new high-throughput approach for performing rapid and low-cost radiochemistry optimizations is demonstrated. Using multi-reaction droplet chips allows for convenient exploration of the impact of reagent concentrations and reaction solvent, and the use of multiple chips could enable the study of reaction temperature and time, all while consuming very low amounts of precursor.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol (thexyl alcohol)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>594-60-5</td>
			<td>98%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>KMG Chemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Cleanroom LP grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium formate (NH4HCO2)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>540-69-2</td>
			<td>97%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrous acetonitrile (MeCN)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75-05-8</td>
			<td>99.80%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ceramic heater</td>
			<td>Watlow</td>
			<td>Utramic CER-1-01-0093</td>
			<td>25 mm x 25 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cerenkov imaging chamber</td>
			<td>Custom built</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Other instruments can be used for TLC plate readout including: small animal in vivo optical imaging system, 2D radio-TLC scanner, 1D radio-TLC scanner</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DI water</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7732-18-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable transfer pipets, 3 mL</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>13-680-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dose calibrator</td>
			<td>Capintec, Inc.</td>
			<td>CRC-25 PET</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fallypride</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>1560.0010.000</td>
			<td>Fallypride reference standard, &#62;95%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>[18F]fluoride in [18O]H2O</td>
			<td>UCLA Ahmanson Biomedical Cyclotron Facility</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Due to short half-life this must be obtained from local radiochemistry lab or commercial radiopharmacy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cover plates (76.2 mm x 50.8 mm x 1 mm thick)</td>
			<td>C&#38;A Scientific</td>
			<td>6101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headway spin coater</td>
			<td>Headway Research, Inc.</td>
			<td>PWM50-PS-R790 Sipinner system</td>
			<td>PWM50-control box, PS-motor, R790-bowl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High temperature oven</td>
			<td>Carbolite</td>
			<td>HTCR 6 28</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>Super-Nuova HP133425</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol (IPA)</td>
			<td>KMG Chemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Cleanroom LP grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mask aligner</td>
			<td>Karl Suss</td>
			<td>MA/BA6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol (MeOH)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>67-56-1</td>
			<td>&#8805;99.9%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>0030 123.301</td>
			<td>500 &#181;L, colorless, polypropylene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (0.5-10 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (100-1000 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (10-100 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Labnet</td>
			<td>BioPette P3940-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (0.1-10 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>USA Scientific Inc Tips</td>
			<td>11113810</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (2-200 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>BrandTech</td>
			<td>13-889-143</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette tips (50-1000 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>BrandTech</td>
			<td>13-889-145</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoresist developer solution</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>MEGAPOSIT MF-26A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Positive photoresist</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>MEGAPOSIT 220-7.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reactive-ion etcher (RIE)</td>
			<td>Oxford Instruments</td>
			<td>Plasma Lab 80 Plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer cutter</td>
			<td>Euro Tool</td>
			<td>CSCB-431.00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer; 4&#34; diameter</td>
			<td>Silicon Valley Microelectronics Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>0017227-048</td>
			<td>P type, boron doped, thickness 525 &#177; 25 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon AF 2400</td>
			<td>Chemours&#160;</td>
			<td>D14896765</td>
			<td>1% solids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetrabutylammonium bicarbonate (TBAHCO3)</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>808</td>
			<td>Aqueous solution stabilized with ethanol, 0.075 M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Themal conducting paste</td>
			<td>OMEGA</td>
			<td>OT-201-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC plates</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA</td>
			<td>1.05554.0001</td>
			<td>Silica gel 60 F254, 50 mm x 60 mm, aluminum back</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tosyl-fallypride</td>
			<td>ABX Advanced Biochemical Compounds</td>
			<td>1550.004.000</td>
			<td>Fallypride precursor, &#62;90%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trimethylamine (TEA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75-50-3</td>
			<td>&#8805; 99%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>UX-07387-08</td>
			<td>Stainless steel, fine tip</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optimization of radiochemical reactions using droplet arrays

Current automated radiosynthesizers are designed to produce large clinical batches of radiopharmaceuticals. They are not well suited for reaction optimization or novel radiopharmaceutical development since each data point involves significant reagent consumption, and contamination of the apparatus requires time for radioactive decay before the next use. To address these limitations, a platform for performing arrays of miniature droplet-based reactions in parallel, each confined within a surface-tension trap on a patterned polytetrafluoroethylene-coated silicon "chip", was developed. These chips enable rapid and convenient studies of reaction parameters including reagent concentrations, reaction solvent, reaction temperature and time. This platform permits the completion of hundreds of reactions in a few days with minimal reagent consumption, instead of taking months using a conventional radiosynthesizer.

A representative experiment was performed to illustrate this method. Using 16 reactions, optimization studies of the radiopharmaceutical [18F]fallypride were performed by varying precursor concentration (77, 39, 19, 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, 1.2, and 0.6 mM) in thexyl alcohol:MeCN (1:1, v/v) as the reaction solvent. Reactions were performed at 110 &#176;C for 7 min. Collection efficiency, sample composition (i.e., proportions of [18F]fallypride product, unreacted [18...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays at JoVE.com

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

This method describes the use of a novel high-throughput methodology, based on droplet chemical reactions, for the rapid and economical optimization of radiopharmaceuticals using nanomole amounts of reagents.

Current automated radiosynthesizers are designed to produce large clinical batches of radiopharmaceuticals. They are not well suited for reaction ...

Current automated radio synthesizers are designed to produce large batches of widely used radiopharmaceuticals, such as FDG. Due to the limited number of syntheses possible per day, and relatively high reagent consumption, these systems, however, are not well-suited for performing synthesis optimization studies. With this technique, throughput is significantly increased by performing up to 16 simultaneous reactions in parallel and reagent consumption is reduced a hundred-fold.Furthermore, by performing reactions in parallel, fair batches of radioisotope are needed to complete a study. Increased throughput enables wider exploration of reaction conditions with greater number of replicates each compared to the use of conventional instruments. While this protocol shows the optimization of precursor concentration in the synthesis of fallypride, the technique can be used to optimize other conditions and other radiopharmaceuticals.Begin by fabricating batches of multi-reaction microdroplet chips from four inch silicon wafers using standard photolithography techniques. In this protocol, the high-throughput optimization of precursor concentration is demonstrated with the synthesis of the radiopharmaceutical Fallypride. 16 simultaneous reactions can be performed on a single chip.The conditions to be compared are mapped to the reaction sites. Prepare a stock solution of the reaction solvent consisting of thexyl alcohol and acetonitrile in a one-to-one by volume mixture. Ensure that the volume is enough to create the planned dilution series.Prepare a 30 microliters stock solution of precursor in the reaction solvent with the maximum concentration to be explored. From the precursor stock solution and reaction solvent perform two times serial dilutions in a set of microcentrifuge tubes to prepare the different concentrations of the precursor solution. Prepare another set of microcentrifuge tubes to collect each crude reaction product using a permanent marker to label each tube with a unique number.Ensure that the total number of microcentrifuge tubes matches the number of conditions multiplied by the number of replicates. Prepare a 10 milliliter stock of collection solution comprising of nine to one methanol to deionized water. Aliquot 50 microliters of each into an additional set of 16 microcentrifuge tubes labeled as collection solution.Prepare a Fluoride stock solution by mixing around seven millicuries of the Fluoride source with 56 microliters of 75 millimolar tetrabutylammonium bicarbonate and diluting with DI water up to 140 microliters. Using a micropipette, load an eight microliter droplet of Fluoride stock solution on the first reaction spot of a multi-reaction chip. Measure the activity of the chip by placing it in a dose calibrator and record the time at which measurement is conducted.Remove the chip from the dose calibrator and load an eight microliter droplet of Fluoride stock solution on the second reaction spot. Measure the activity on the chip and record the time at which measurement is conducted. Repeat this process for all other reaction sites.Calculate the activity loaded per reaction spot by taking the activity measurement after loading the radioisotope and subtracting the previous measurement before that site was loaded. To align the multi-reaction chip on the heater, add a thin layer of thermal paste on top of the ceramic heater. Carefully place the chip on top of the heater using tweezers aligning the reference corner of the chip with the reference corner of the heater.The chip should overhang the heater by a small amount. Heat the chip for one minute by setting the heater to 105 degrees Celsius in the control program to evaporate the droplets, leaving a dried residue of Fluoride and tetrabutylammonium bicarbonate. Then, cooled the chip by setting the heater to 30 degrees Celsius and turning on the cooling fan with the control program.Using a micropipette, add a six microliters solution of fallypride precursor on top of the dried residue on the first reaction site. Repeat this for all other reaction sites on the chip. Use the optimization plan to determine which concentration of the dilution series is used for each reaction site.Heat the chip to 110 degrees Celsius for seven minutes using the control program to perform the radiofluorination reaction, then cool the chip by setting the heater to 30 degrees Celsius and turning on the cooling fan with the control program. Collect the crude product at the first reaction site by adding 10 microliters of collection solution from the designated microcentrifuge tube. After waiting for five seconds, aspirate the diluted crude product and transfer it to the corresponding collection microcentrifuge tube.Repeat this process a total of four times using the same pipette tip and then close the microcentrifuge tube. Repeat these steps to collect the crude product from all other reaction sites on the chip. To determine the collection efficiency for the first reaction on the chip, place the microcentrifuge tube with the collected crude product of the first reaction spot in the dose calibrator to measure the activity.Record the measurement and time of the measurement. Repeat this process for each of the collected crude products. Calculate the collection efficiency by dividing the activity of the collected crude product by the starting activity measured for the same reaction site.Repeat this for all other reaction sites on the chip. Next, analyze the composition of each collected crude product. With a pencil, draw a line 15 millimeters away from the bottom edge of the TLC plate and another line 50 millimeters away from the same edge.The first line is the origin line and the second is the solvent frontline. Draw eight small X's along the origin line at five millimeter spacing to define the sample spotting position for each of the eight lanes. Using a micropipette, transfer 0.5 microliters of the first crude product onto the TLC plate at the X for the first lane.Repeat this for additional crude products, then wait for the spots to dry. Develop each TLC plate using a mobile phase of 60%of acetonitrile in 25 millimolar ammonium formate with 1%TEA until the solvent front reaches the solvent frontline. At that time, remove the TLC plate from the chamber and wait for the solvent on the TLC plate to dry, then placed the TLC plate in the Cerenkov imaging system and cover it with a glass microscope slide.Obtain a radioactivity image of each TLC plate by setting the Cerenkov imaging system to a five minute exposure, then select the produced file of the image to TLC plate and perform standard image corrections. Use region of interest analysis for the first lane of the first TLC plate. Draw regions around each band visible in the lane, then compute the fraction of integrated intensity of each region compared to the total integrated intensity of all regions.Determine the fluorination efficiency as the fraction of activity in the Fallypride band. Repeat this analysis for all other lanes on all TLC plates. Then, compute the crude radiochemical yield for each reaction and choose the optimal precursor concentration by examining the crude radiochemical yield as a function of precursor concentration.Optimization studies of the radiopharmaceutical Fallypride were performed by varying precursor concentration in thexyl alcohol acetonitrile. Reactions were performed at 110 degrees Celsius per seven minutes. Collection efficiency and sample composition are shown here.The fluorination efficiency increased with increasing precursor concentration and the concentration of unreacted Fluoride decreased. There was a small amount of radioactive side product at low precursor concentrations, which was not formed at the higher precursor concentrations. The collection efficiency was nearly quantitative for most conditions, though it dropped slightly at low precursor concentrations.The highest crude radiochemical yield was achieved with a 39 millimolar precursor concentration. At this condition, the fluorination efficiency was 96%The crude RCY was 87%and there was no observed radioactive side product formation. It is critical to have a map plan of what reaction condition corresponds to which reaction droplet on the chip and to have appropriately labeled reagent tubes and product collection tubes that can be double-checked during the experiment.The procedure can be used for the optimization of other reaction conditions, such as amount of base, type of solvent, or reaction volume. It can also be used to optimize the synthesis of other radiopharmaceuticals.

optimization-of-radiochemical-reactions-using-droplet-arrays

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Microwave-assisted Intramolecular Dehydrogenative Diels-Alder Reactions for the Synthesis of Functionalized Naphthalenes/Solvatochromic Dyes

Functionalized naphthalenes have applications in a variety of research fields ranging from the synthesis of natural or biologically active molecules to the preparation of new organic dyes. Although numerous strategies have been reported to access naphthalene scaffolds, many procedures still present limitations in terms of incorporating functionality, which in turn narrows the range of available substrates. The development of versatile methods for direct access to substituted naphthalenes is therefore highly desirable.
The Diels-Alder (DA) cycloaddition reaction is a powerful and attractive method for the formation of saturated and unsaturated ring systems from readily available starting materials. A new microwave-assisted intramolecular dehydrogenative DA reaction of styrenyl derivatives described herein generates a variety of functionalized cyclopenta[b]naphthalenes that could not be prepared using existing synthetic methods. When compared to conventional heating, microwave irradiation accelerates reaction rates, enhances yields, and limits the formation of undesired byproducts.
The utility of this protocol is further demonstrated by the conversion of a DA cycloadduct into a novel solvatochromic fluorescent dye via a Buchwald-Hartwig palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction. Fluorescence spectroscopy, as an informative and sensitive analytical technique, plays a key role in research fields including environmental science, medicine, pharmacology, and cellular biology. Access to a variety of new organic fluorophores provided by the microwave-assisted dehydrogenative DA reaction allows for further advancement in these fields.

Microwave-assisted intramolecular dehydrogenative Diels-Alder (DA) reactions provide concise access to functionalized cyclopenta[b]naphthalene building blocks. The utility of this methodology is demonstrated by one-step conversion of the dehydrogenative DA cycloadducts into novel solvatochromic fluorescent dyes via Buchwald-Hartwig palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions.

Functionalized naphthalenes have applications in a variety of research fields ranging from the synthesis of natural or biologically active molecules to ...

Retropinacol/Cross-pinacol Coupling Reactions - A Catalytic Access to 1,2-Unsymmetrical Diols

Unsymmetrical 1,2-diols are hardly accessible by reductive pinacol coupling processes. A successful execution of such a transformation is bound to a clear recognition and strict differentiation of two similar carbonyl compounds (aldehydes &#8594; secondary 1,2-diols or ketones &#8594; tertiary 1,2-diols). This fine-tuning is still a challenge and an unsolved problem for an organic chemist. There exist several reports on successful execution of this transformation but they cannot be generalized. Herein we describe a catalytic direct pinacol coupling process which proceeds via a retropinacol/cross-pinacol coupling sequence. Thus, unsymmetrical substituted 1,2-diols can be accessed with almost quantitative yields by means of an&#160;operationally simple performance under very mild conditions. Artificial techniques, such as syringe-pump techniques or delayed additions of reactants are not necessary. The procedure we describe provides a very rapid access to cross-pinacol products (1,2-diols, vicinal diols). A further extension of this new process, e.g. an enantioselective performance could provide a very useful tool for the synthesis of unsymmetrical chiral 1,2-diols.

A novel account for the synthesis of unsymmetrical 1,2-diols based on a retropinacol/cross-pinacol coupling mechanism is described. Due to the catalytic execution of this reaction a considerable improvement compared to conventional cross-pinacol couplings is achieved.

Unsymmetrical 1,2-diols are hardly accessible by reductive pinacol coupling processes. A successful execution of such a transformation is bound to a clear ...

Hot Biological Catalysis: Isothermal Titration Calorimetry to Characterize Enzymatic Reactions

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a well-described technique that measures the heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction, using it as an intrinsic probe to characterize virtually every chemical process. Nowadays, this technique is extensively applied to determine thermodynamic parameters of biomolecular binding equilibria. In addition, ITC has been demonstrated to be able of directly measuring kinetics and thermodynamic parameters (kcat, KM, &#916;H) of enzymatic reactions, even though this application is still underexploited. As heat changes spontaneously occur during enzymatic catalysis, ITC does not require any modification or labeling of the system under analysis and can be performed in solution. Moreover, the method needs little amount of material. These properties make ITC an invaluable, powerful and unique tool to study enzyme kinetics in several applications, such as, for example, drug discovery.
In this work an experimental ITC-based method to quantify kinetics and thermodynamics of enzymatic reactions is thoroughly described. This method is applied to determine kcat and KM of the enzymatic hydrolysis of urea by Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean) urease. Calculation of intrinsic molar enthalpy (&#916;Hint) of the reaction is performed. The values thus obtained are consistent with previous data reported in literature, demonstrating the reliability of the methodology.

Isothermal titration calorimetry measures heat flow released or absorbed in chemical reactions. This method can be used to quantify enzyme-catalysis. In this paper, the protocol for instrumental setup, experiment running, and data analysis is generally described, and applied to the characterization of enzymatic urea hydrolysis by jack bean urease.

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a well-described technique that measures the heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction, using it as ...

Real-time Monitoring of Reactions Performed Using Continuous-flow Processing: The Preparation of 3-Acetylcoumarin as an Example

By using inline monitoring, it is possible to optimize reactions performed using continuous-flow processing in a simple and rapid way. It is also possible to ensure consistent product quality over time using this technique. We here show how to interface a commercially available flow unit with a Raman spectrometer. The Raman flow cell is placed after the back-pressure regulator, meaning that it can be operated at atmospheric pressure. In addition, the fact that the product stream passes through a length of tubing before entering the flow cell means that the material is at RT. It is important that the spectra are acquired under isothermal conditions since Raman signal intensity is temperature dependent. Having assembled the apparatus, we then show how to monitor a chemical reaction, the piperidine-catalyzed synthesis of 3-acetylcoumarin from salicylaldehyde and ethyl acetoacetate being used as an example. The reaction can be performed over a range of flow rates and temperatures, the in-situ monitoring tool being used to optimize conditions simply and easily.

Real-time monitoring allows for fast optimization of reactions performed using continuous-flow processing. Here the preparation of 3-acetylcoumarin is used as an example. The apparatus for performing in-situ Raman monitoring is described, as are the steps required to optimize the reaction.

By using inline monitoring, it is possible to optimize reactions performed using continuous-flow processing in a simple and rapid way. It is also possible ...

Optimization of Synthetic Proteins: Identification of Interpositional Dependencies Indicating Structurally and/or Functionally Linked Residues

Protein alignments are commonly used to evaluate the similarity of protein residues, and the derived consensus sequence used for identifying functional units (e.g., domains). Traditional consensus-building models fail to account for interpositional dependencies &#8211; functionally required covariation of residues that tend to appear simultaneously throughout evolution and across the phylogentic tree. These relationships can reveal important clues about the processes of protein folding, thermostability, and the formation of functional sites, which in turn can be used to inform the engineering of synthetic proteins. Unfortunately, these relationships essentially form sub-motifs which cannot be predicted by simple &#8220;majority rule&#8221; or even HMM-based consensus models, and the result can be a biologically invalid &#8220;consensus&#8221; which is not only never seen in nature but is less viable than any extant protein. We have developed a visual analytics tool, StickWRLD, which creates an interactive 3D representation of a protein alignment and clearly displays covarying residues. The user has the ability to pan and zoom, as well as dynamically change the statistical threshold underlying the identification of covariants. StickWRLD has previously been successfully used to identify functionally-required covarying residues in proteins such as Adenylate Kinase and in DNA sequences such as endonuclease target sites.

Synthetic protein sequences based on consensus motifs typically ignore co-evolving residues, that imply interpositional dependencies (IPDs). IPDs can be essential to activity, and designs that disregard them may result in suboptimal results. This protocol uses StickWRLD to identify IPDs and help inform rational protein design, resulting in more efficient results.

Protein alignments are commonly used to evaluate the similarity of protein residues, and the derived consensus sequence used for identifying functional ...

Curtain Flow Column: Optimization of Efficiency and Sensitivity

Active Flow Technology (AFT) is a form of column technology that increases the separation performance of a HPLC column through the use of a specially purpose built multiport end-fitting(s). Curtain Flow (CF) columns belong to the AFT suite of columns, specifically the CF column is designed so that the sample is injected into the radial central region of the bed and a curtain flow of mobile phase surrounding the injection of solute prevents the radial dispersion of the sample to the wall. The column functions as an 'infinite diameter' column. The purpose of the design is to overcome the radial heterogeneity of the column bed, and at the same time maximize the sample load into the radial central region of the column bed, which serves to increase detection sensitivity. The protocol described herein outlines the system and CF column set up and the tuning process for an optimized infinite diameter 'virtual' column.

Here, we present a protocol for the operation and optimization of Active Flow Technology (AFT) column in Curtain flow (CF) mode for enhanced separation performance.

Active Flow Technology (AFT) is a form of column technology that increases the separation performance of a HPLC column through the use of a specially ...

A Protocol for Safe Lithiation Reactions Using Organolithium Reagents

Organolithium reagents are powerful tools in the synthetic chemist&#39;s toolbox. However, the extreme pyrophoric nature of the most reactive reagents warrants proper technique, thorough training, and proper personal protective equipment. To aid in the training of researchers using organolithium reagents, a thorough, step-by-step protocol for the safe and effective use of tert-butyllithium on an inert gas line or within a glovebox is described. As a model reaction, preparation of lithium tert-butyl amide by the reaction of tert-butyl amine with one equivalent of tert-butyl lithium is presented.

The safe and proper use of organolithium reagents is described.

Organolithium reagents are powerful tools in the synthetic chemist&#39;s toolbox. However, the extreme pyrophoric nature of the most reactive reagents ...

Synthesis of Platinum-nickel Nanowires and Optimization for Oxygen Reduction Performance

Platinum-nickel (Pt-Ni) nanowires were developed as fuel cell electrocatalysts, and were optimized for the performance and durability in the oxygen reduction reaction. Spontaneous galvanic displacement was used to deposit Pt layers onto Ni nanowire substrates. The synthesis approach produced catalysts with high specific activities and high Pt surface areas. Hydrogen annealing improved Pt and Ni mixing and specific activity. Acid leaching was used to preferentially remove Ni near the nanowire surface, and oxygen annealing was used to stabilize near-surface Ni, improving durability and minimizing Ni dissolution. These protocols detail the optimization of each post-synthesis processing step, including hydrogen annealing to 250 &#176;C, exposure to 0.1 M nitric acid, and oxygen annealing to 175 &#176;C. Through these steps, Pt-Ni nanowires produced increased activities more than an order of magnitude than Pt nanoparticles, while offering significant durability improvements. The presented protocols are based on Pt-Ni systems in the development of fuel cell catalysts. These techniques have also been used for a variety of metal combinations, and can be applied to develop catalysts for a number of electrochemical processes.

&#160; The protocol describes the synthesis and electrochemical testing of platinum-nickel nanowires. Nanowires were synthesized by the galvanic displacement of a nickel nanowire template. Post-synthesis processing, including hydrogen annealing, acid leaching, and oxygen annealing were used to optimize nanowire performance and durability in the oxygen reduction reaction.

Platinum-nickel (Pt-Ni) nanowires were developed as fuel cell electrocatalysts, and were optimized for the performance and durability in the oxygen ...

Enzymatic Cascade Reactions for the Synthesis of Chiral Amino Alcohols from L-lysine

Amino alcohols are versatile compounds with a wide range of applications. For instance, they have been used as chiral scaffolds in organic synthesis. Their synthesis by conventional organic chemistry often requires tedious multi-step synthesis processes, with difficult control of the stereochemical outcome. We present a protocol to enzymatically synthetize amino alcohols starting from the readily available L-lysine in 48 h. This protocol combines two chemical reactions that are very difficult to conduct by conventional organic synthesis. In the first step, the regio- and diastereoselective oxidation of an unactivated C-H bond of the lysine side-chain is catalyzed by a dioxygenase; a second regio- and diastereoselective oxidation catalyzed by a regiodivergent dioxygenase can lead to the formation of the 1,2-diols. In the last step, the carboxylic group of the alpha amino acid is cleaved by a pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP) decarboxylase (DC). This decarboxylative step only affects the alpha carbon of the amino acid, retaining the hydroxy-substituted stereogenic center in a beta/gamma position. The resulting amino alcohols are therefore optically enriched. The protocol was successfully applied to the semipreparative-scale synthesis of four amino alcohols. Monitoring of the reactions was conducted by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after derivatization by 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. Straightforward purification by solid-phase extraction (SPE) afforded the amino alcohols with excellent yields (93% to &#62;95%).

Chiral amino alcohols are versatile molecules for use as scaffolds in organic synthesis. Starting from L-lysine, we synthesize amino alcohols by an enzymatic cascade reaction combining diastereoselective C-H oxidation catalyzed by dioxygenase followed by cleavage of the carboxylic acid moiety of the corresponding hydroxyl amino acid by a decarboxylase.

Amino alcohols are versatile compounds with a wide range of applications. For instance, they have been used as chiral scaffolds in organic synthesis. ...

A Femtoliter Droplet Array for Massively Parallel Protein Synthesis from Single DNA Molecules

Advances in spatial resolution and detection sensitivity of scientific instrumentation make it possible to apply small reactors for biological and chemical research. To meet the demand for high-performance microreactors, we developed a femtoliter droplet array (FemDA) device and exemplified its application in massively parallel cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) reactions. Over one million uniform droplets were readily generated within a finger-sized area using a two-step oil-sealing protocol. Every droplet was anchored in a femtoliter microchamber composed of a hydrophilic bottom and a hydrophobic sidewall. The hybrid hydrophilic-in-hydrophobic structure and the dedicated sealing oils and surfactants are crucial for stably retaining the femtoliter aqueous solution in the femtoliter space without evaporation loss. The femtoliter configuration and the simple structure of the FemDA device allowed minimal reagent consumption. The uniform dimension of the droplet reactors made large-scale quantitative and time-course measurements convincing and reliable. The FemDA technology correlated the protein yield of the CFPS reaction with the number of DNA molecules in each droplet. We streamlined the procedures about the microfabrication of the device, the formation of the femtoliter droplets, and the acquisition and analysis of the microscopic image data. The detailed protocol with the optimized low running cost makes the FemDA technology accessible to everyone who has standard cleanroom facilities and a conventional fluorescence microscope in their own place.

The overall goal of the protocol is to prepare over one million ordered, uniform, stable, and biocompatible femtoliter droplets on a 1 cm2 planar substrate that can be used for cell-free protein synthesis.