Name: analytical determination of mitochondrial function of excised solid tumor homogenates
Uploaded: 2021-08-06T14:30:00
Duration: 11 min 32 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analytical Determination of Mitochondrial Function of Excised Solid Tumor Homogenates at JoVE.com

We thank the Pennington Biomedical Research Center Comparative Biology Core staff for animal care. This research was supported in part by the National Institute of Health grants U54GM104940 (JPK) and KL2TR003097 (LAG). All experiments and procedures involving animals were approved by the Pennington Biomedical Research Center Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

<ol>
	<li>DeBerardinis, R. J., Chandel, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fundamentals+of+cancer+metabolism.">Fundamentals of cancer metabolism.</a> Science Advances. 2 (5), 1600200 (2016).</li><li>Bajzikova, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactivation+of+dihydroorotate+dehydrogenase-driven+pyrimidine+biosynthesis+restores+tumor+growth+of+respiration-deficient+cancer+cells.">Reactivation of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase-driven pyrimidine biosynthesis restores tumor growth of respiration-deficient cancer cells.</a> Cell Metabolism. 29 (2), 399-416 (2019).</li><li>Mart&#237;nez-Reyes, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+ubiquinol+oxidation+is+necessary+for+tumour+growth.">Mitochondrial ubiquinol oxidation is necessary for tumour growth.</a> Nature. 585 (7824), 288-292 (2020).</li><li>Picard, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+structure+and+function+are+disrupted+by+standard+isolation+methods.">Mitochondrial structure and function are disrupted by standard isolation methods.</a> PloS One. 6 (3), 18317 (2011).</li><li>Saks, V. A., et al., Saks, V. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Bioenergetics of the Cell: Quantitative Aspects. , 81-100 (1998).</li><li>Kaambre, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+control+analysis+of+cellular+respiration+in+situ+in+intraoperational+samples+of+human+breast+cancer.">Metabolic control analysis of cellular respiration in situ in intraoperational samples of human breast cancer.</a> Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes. 44 (5), 539-558 (2012).</li><li>Koit, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+respiration+in+human+colorectal+and+breast+cancer+clinical+material+is+regulated+differently.">Mitochondrial respiration in human colorectal and breast cancer clinical material is regulated differently.</a> Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2017, 1372640 (2017).</li><li>Holland, O. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+mitochondrial+respiration+in+the+human+placenta+over+gestation.">Changes in mitochondrial respiration in the human placenta over gestation.</a> Placenta. 57, 102-112 (2017).</li><li>Pesta, D., Gnaiger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+respirometry:+OXPHOS+protocols+for+human+cells+and+permeabilized+fibers+from+small+biopsies+of+human+muscle.">High-resolution respirometry: OXPHOS protocols for human cells and permeabilized fibers from small biopsies of human muscle.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 810, 25-58 (2012).</li><li>Makrecka-Kuka, M., Krumschnabel, G., Gnaiger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+respirometry+for+simultaneous+measurement+of+oxygen+and+hydrogen+peroxide+fluxes+in+permeabilized+cells,+tissue+homogenate+and+isolated+mitochondria.">High-resolution respirometry for simultaneous measurement of oxygen and hydrogen peroxide fluxes in permeabilized cells, tissue homogenate and isolated mitochondria.</a> Biomolecules. 5 (3), 1319-1338 (2015).</li><li>Kondrashova, M. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preservation+of+native+properties+of+mitochondria+in+rat+liver+homogenate.">Preservation of native properties of mitochondria in rat liver homogenate.</a> Mitochondrion. 1 (3), 249-267 (2001).</li><li>Pecinov&#225;, A., Drahota, Z., N&#367;skov&#225;, H., Pecina, P., Hou&#353;t&#283;k, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+basic+mitochondrial+functions+using+rat+tissue+homogenates.">Evaluation of basic mitochondrial functions using rat tissue homogenates.</a> Mitochondrion. 11 (5), 722-728 (2011).</li><li>Wu, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiparameter+metabolic+analysis+reveals+a+close+link+between+attenuated+mitochondrial+bioenergetic+function+and+enhanced+glycolysis+dependency+in+human+tumor+cells.">Multiparameter metabolic analysis reveals a close link between attenuated mitochondrial bioenergetic function and enhanced glycolysis dependency in human tumor cells.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology. 292 (1), 125-136 (2007).</li><li>Hlozkov&#225;, K., Starkov&#225;, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+the+metabolic+profile+of+primary+leukemia+cells.">Assessment of the metabolic profile of primary leukemia cells.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (141), e58426 (2018).</li><li>Zhang, J., Zhang, Q., Haznadar, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cancer Metabolism: Methods and Protocols. , 353-363 (2019).</li><li>Wigner, P., Zielinski, K., Labieniec-Watala, M., Marczak, A., Szwed, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Doxorubicin-transferrin+conjugate+alters+mitochondrial+homeostasis+and+energy+metabolism+in+human+breast+cancer+cells.">Doxorubicin-transferrin conjugate alters mitochondrial homeostasis and energy metabolism in human breast cancer cells.</a> Scientific Reports. 11 (1), 4544 (2021).</li><li>Sch&#246;pf, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+phosphorylation+and+mitochondrial+function+differ+between+human+prostate+tissue+and+cultured+cells.">Oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial function differ between human prostate tissue and cultured cells.</a> The FEBS Journal. 283 (11), 2181-2196 (2016).</li><li>Ye, F., Hoppel, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+oxidative+phosphorylation+in+human+skin+fibroblasts.">Measuring oxidative phosphorylation in human skin fibroblasts.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 437 (1), 52-58 (2013).</li><li>Le Naour, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EO771,+the+first+luminal+B+mammary+cancer+cell+line+from+C57BL/6+mice.">EO771, the first luminal B mammary cancer cell line from C57BL/6 mice.</a> Cancer Cell International. 20, 328 (2020).</li><li>Gnaiger, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+physiology.">Mitochondrial physiology.</a> Bioenergetics Communications. 1, 44 (2020).</li><li>Hughey, C. C., Hittel, D. S., Johnsen, V. L., Shearer, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Respirometric+oxidative+phosphorylation+assessment+in+saponin-permeabilized+cardiac+fibers.">Respirometric oxidative phosphorylation assessment in saponin-permeabilized cardiac fibers.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (48), e2431 (2011).</li><li>Dranka, B. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+bioenergetic+function+in+response+to+oxidative+stress+by+metabolic+profiling.">Assessing bioenergetic function in response to oxidative stress by metabolic profiling.</a> Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 51 (9), 1621-1635 (2011).</li><li>Munday, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+superoxide+radical,+hydrogen+peroxide+and+hydroxyl+radical+during+the+autoxidation+of+N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine.">Generation of superoxide radical, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical during the autoxidation of N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine.</a> Chemico-Biological Interactions. 65 (2), 133-143 (1988).</li><li>Moser, M. D., Matsuzaki, S., Humphries, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+succinate-linked+respiration+and+complex+II+activity+by+hydrogen+peroxide.">Inhibition of succinate-linked respiration and complex II activity by hydrogen peroxide.</a> Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 488 (1), 69-75 (2009).</li><li>Veksler, V. I., Kuznetsov, A. V., Sharov, V. G., Kapelko, V. I., Saks, V. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+respiratory+parameters+in+cardiac+tissue:+a+novel+method+of+assessment+by+using+saponin-skinned+fibers.">Mitochondrial respiratory parameters in cardiac tissue: a novel method of assessment by using saponin-skinned fibers.</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 892 (2), 191-196 (1987).</li><li>Gnaiger, E., Heldmaier, G., Klingenspor, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondria+in+the+Cold.">Mitochondria in the Cold.</a> Life in the Cold. , 431-442 (2000).</li><li>Doerrier, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+fluorespirometry+and+OXPHOS+protocols+for+human+cells,+permeabilized+fibers+from+small+biopsies+of+muscle,+and+isolated+mitochondria.">High-resolution fluorespirometry and OXPHOS protocols for human cells, permeabilized fibers from small biopsies of muscle, and isolated mitochondria.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1782, 31-70 (2018).</li><li>Rohlenova, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+disruption+of+respiratory+supercomplexes+as+a+new+strategy+to+suppress+Her2(high)+breast+cancer.">Selective disruption of respiratory supercomplexes as a new strategy to suppress Her2(high) breast cancer.</a> Antioxidants &amp; Redox Signaling. 26 (2), 84-103 (2017).</li><li>Gnaiger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+pathways+and+respiratory+control.">Mitochondrial pathways and respiratory control.</a> Bioenergetics Communications. 5th ed. , (2020).</li><li>Barksdale, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+viability+in+mouse+and+human+postmortem+brain.">Mitochondrial viability in mouse and human postmortem brain.</a> FASEB Journal. 24 (9), 3590-3599 (2010).</li><li>Underwood, E., Redell, J. B., Zhao, J., Moore, A. N., Dash, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+assessing+tissue+respiration+in+anatomically+defined+brain+regions.">A method for assessing tissue respiration in anatomically defined brain regions.</a> Scientific Reportys. 10 (1), 13179 (2020).</li><li>Jorgensen, L. B., Overgaard, J., Hunter-Manseau, F., Pichaud, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dramatic+changes+in+mitochondrial+substrate+use+at+critically+high+temperatures:+a+comparative+study+using+Drosophila.">Dramatic changes in mitochondrial substrate use at critically high temperatures: a comparative study using Drosophila.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 224, (2021).</li><li>Salin, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+measurement+of+mitochondrial+respiration+and+ATP+production+in+tissue+homogenates+and+calculation+of+effective+P/O+ratios.">Simultaneous measurement of mitochondrial respiration and ATP production in tissue homogenates and calculation of effective P/O ratios.</a> Physiological Reports. 4 (20), 13007 (2016).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest related to this work.

Approaches to evaluating mitochondrial respiration in cancer have largely been limited to in vitro models13,14,15,16. Some success has been achieved in measuring mitochondrial respiration in tumors using chemical permeabilization6,7,17, but there is no uniform, gold-standard approach that can be universally applied and compared across tumor types. Additionally, a lack of consistent data analysis and reporting has limited data generalizability and reproducibility. The method outlined herein provides a simple, relatively quick approach to measure mitochondrial respiration18 in mitochondrial preparations from freshly excised solid tumor specimens. Tumors were grown from orthotopically implanted murine Luminal B, ER&#945;-negative EO771 mammary cancer cells19.
Diligence and care with tissue handling will greatly improve the accuracy and normalization of the oxygen consumption rates. The tissue and mitochondria can be easily damaged if the sample is not kept cold, is not consistently submerged in preservation media, or is overly handled, resulting in suboptimal routine and OXPHOS rates. Additionally, accurate wet weight of the homogenized tissue is of critical importance as this is the primary normalization method. Other normalization methods may be considered, such as total protein or mitochondrial specific markers, such as citrate synthase activity20. Additionally, tissue heterogeneity will need to be addressed, with decisions about tumor regions to include in experiments made a priori. Necrotic, fibrotic, and connective tissue may not homogenize and/or respire well and should be avoided unless intentionally assaying these tumor regions. Notably, the tumor may be very sticky depending on the type and excision region, making accurate weighing and transfer more challenging. The number of strokes used for homogenizations should be optimized to ensure complete preparation of the mitochondria while mitigating damage to the outer mitochondrial membranes.
For improved accuracy and reproducibility, we recommend optimization experiments be performed for the number of strokes for homogenate preparation, tissue concentration, and substrate, uncoupler, inhibitor concentrations. Studies can compare the different number of strokes and how they correspond with response to the addition of cytochrome c within the study as well as the maximal mitochondrial respiratory capacity 21. Although there is a general acceptance that less cytochrome c response is better, as an increase in oxygen consumption after the addition of cytochrome c can indicate damage to the outer mitochondrial membrane, there is no gold-standard as to what this threshold is for every tissue and should be experimentally investigated to ensure the tissue is not being overworked or underprepared. In this tumor tissue, it was found that a cytochrome c response under ~30% did not impair respiratory function. Cytochrome c use becomes critical for accurate quantification of respiratory capacity if the test is positive. In this case, the addition replenishes endogenous cytochrome c, which, if depleted, will cause an underestimation of the respiratory rates.
Tissue concentration titration experiments can be performed over a range of feasible concentrations and, ideally, would be done with SUITs that will be investigated during the study. Respiratory capacity will vary by tumor type and composition. Thus, tumors dense with mitochondria or high respiratory capacity will require lower concentrations (0.5-5 mg/mL). Tumors with few mitochondria or low respiratory capacity will require higher concentrations (7-12 mg/mL). Additionally, SUITs that are long or have highly consumed substrates may need less tissue to prevent reoxygenation of the chamber or ADP limitation. Some tissues will have a linear relationship in oxygen consumption, whereas others will show improved sensitivity and maximal oxidation at certain concentration ranges. The chosen tissue concentration should be optimized to maximize oxygen flux while limiting the number of reoxygenation events. Additionally, it is often better to overestimate the need or aim for the higher end of the concentration range. The inhibitors, which are essential to the quantitation of respiratory fluxes, are more precise when used in larger pools of mitochondria.
Another essential consideration is the concentration of the drugs that are used during the protocols. Changes in homogenate concentration may alter the concentrations of substrates, uncouplers, and inhibitors required for maximal response. Thus, once the optimal concentration range is chosen, an experiment testing the doses required for the SUIT protocol should be performed. Additional ADP can be added to ensure that adenylate concentrations are not limiting to respiratory fluxes. Chemical uncouplers such as FCCP or CCCP will inhibit respiration at higher concentrations22. As such, it is essential to titrate in small amounts to reveal the maximal achieved rate. Inhibitors, such as rotenone and antimycin A, are best used when saturated within the first injection. While optimal concentrations were determined in preliminary experiments, we have also observed treatment-related differences in response to inhibitors and thus often add one additional injection of inhibitors to demonstrate maximal inhibition as the resultant rates serve as the basis for quantification. Chemical inhibition of Ascorbate/TPMD is essential for accurate analytical reduction as TMPD undergoes autooxidation23. We controlled for auto-oxidation of ascorbate/TMPD/cytochrome c through the addition of sodium azide, an established CIV inhibitor. For the Km studies, the addition of rotenone in the presence of succinate alone prevents oxaloacetate accumulation which can inhibit succinate dehydrogenase activity at low concentrations24. The volume and concentration of ADP are highly dependent on the sensitivity of the mitochondria to the prevailing substrate combination. Mitochondrial preparations that are highly sensitive to ADP will require lower starting concentrations. Additionally, validated chemicals and proper drug preparation with attention to pH, sensitivity to light if applicable, and storage temperature are essential for successful experiments.
Instrument setup and routine care are of critical importance for the success of these experiments. Adequate and proper cleaning of the chambers is essential for reproducibility and prevention of biological, protein, inhibitor, or uncoupler contamination. Clark-type electrodes and O2k systems utilize glass reaction chambers which is a significant cost advantage to plate-based systems which rely on consumables. However, the glass chambers must be vigorously cleaned and can be a source of inhibitor contamination in subsequent studies. Incubation with mitochondria-rich specimens during the washing process (isolated heart or liver mitochondria, for example) can reduce the risk of experimental contamination and is recommended in addition to dilution and alcohol-based washing procedures. If consecutive studies are run, cleaning with ethanol and mitochondria minimizes the possibility of inhibitor contamination. Calibration of the oxygen sensor is recommended prior to each experiment to obtain accurate measurements of respiration relative to the prevailing partial pressure of oxygen. If multiple calibrations are not feasible, one calibration a day may be sufficient if the oxygen concentration remains stable and consistent after the washing procedure.
The procedures outlined above leverage the Oroboros O2k instrument for measuring oxygen consumption in tumor tissue within 4 hours of tumor excision using previously designed and optimized preservation solution and respiration media25,26,27. Multiple parameters in this protocol can be modified for subsequent applications. The instrument setup and calibration, the homogenizers used for tissue preparation, and optimal homogenate and chamber oxygen concentration can all be adapted for use on other instruments with oxygen monitoring potential. For example, the chambers were slightly overfilled when adding homogenate, and thus when the chamber is fully closed, the chamber capillary remains full. This will consume&#160;some oxygen in the chamber, but with optimization of sample concentration, we can account for this consumption in determining what oxygen level to start with. Alternatively, the sample can be allowed to equilibrate at ambient oxygen before the chamber is closed, but this will often increase the amount of time before the experiment starts and delay the addition of substrates. While the homogenizers used in this protocol are widely accessible, other commercial homogenization techniques could be employed, such as a tissue shredder or automated homogenizer28.
Additionally, the tissue preparation and instrument procedures can be utilized with a number of different SUITs to study respiratory control by a diversity of coupling and pathway control states29. These SUIT protocols have been developed to measure functional capacity, and thus, the contribution of potential endogenous substrates has no impact on the capacity measurement. We analytically account for non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption and/or residual consumption of the homogenate through subtraction of the antimycin A-rotenone, or sodium azide insensitive rates, as appropriate. Mitochondria can remain viable in BIOPS or similarly constructed preservation solutions for extended periods of time (&#62;24 h) depending on tissue type and intactness30,31. Studies can be carried out in advance to determine the temporal storage limits as OXPHOS of certain substrates may have different limitations. This is essential if the experiment cannot be performed within several hours of tissue excision/biopsy. 37&#176;C is an optimal and physiological temperature for the evaluation of respiratory function in most mammalian systems. However, if the assay temperature appears to interfere with evaluation32, comparative studies may be conducted across a wide temperature range (25-40 &#176;C) to ensure adequate responsiveness. Instrumental constraints may limit the ability to conduct such studies.
Major limitations of the above-described method are 1) the potential for damage to mitochondria through mechanical homogenization, 2) presence of ATPases or other sub-cellular biochemicals in homogenate preparations that can interfere with simultaneous determination of ATP or other variables of interest and may require additional correction methods or inhibitor use33, and 3) evaluation of many samples and/or multiple SUITs per sample is time-consuming as one instrument can accommodate two experiments at a time and requires cleaning and set up in-between successive experiments. Optimization experiments and consistent preparation of samples can minimize substantial mitochondrial damage that would contribute to inconsistent data.
The significance of the method with respect to existing/alternative methods is improved feasibility compared with the amount of starting material, challenge of isolating mitochondria, or technical challenge in permeabilizing tissue. Preparation of homogenates is faster, oxygen is not nearly as limiting, and is less susceptible to variability between personnel compared with permeabilized tissue. Importantly, nearly all sample types are suitable for homogenate preparation which allows for comparative analysis across tissues. High-resolution respirometry is the gold-standard measurement of mitochondrial OXPHOS and ET. The application of this method in pre-clinical and clinical cancer research has the capacity to expand current in vitro investigations to ex vivo studies. Furthermore, it offers potential applications in clinical and diagnostic settings.

All cells are intimately linked by their need to produce and consume adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecular energy currency. As cellular mutations give rise to the formation of tumors, mitochondria ensure survival through diversification of energy production that is often phenotypically distinguishable from non-cancerous tissue1,2,3. As such, there is a critical need for rapid and deep profiling of mitochondrial respiratory function in order to facilitate&#160;the classification of tumor type, cancer initiation, progression, and treatment response.
Respiratory functions of excised tissue specimens cannot be evaluated intact as the primary substrates for OXPHOS are not cell-permeable. To overcome this limitation, mitochondria can be prepared either by isolation, chemical permeabilization, or mechanical homogenization. Mitochondrial isolation is long considered to be a gold standard for the evaluation of respiratory function. However, it requires large amounts of tissue, is time-consuming, and is low-yielding with possible selection bias for certain fractions of mitochondria4. Permeabilization consists of mechanical separation and exposure of tissue sections or fiber bundles to a mild detergent that selectively degrades the plasma membrane5. Permeabilization is frequently employed in striated tissues such as skeletal and cardiac muscle as individual fiber bundles can be teased apart. Compared to isolation, permeabilization yields more mitochondria in their native cellular environment and physical form5. Permeabilization has been successfully applied in other tissues such as tumor6,7 and placenta8; however, reproducibility of permeabilized fiber preparations can be difficult due to consistency of dissection and oxygen requirements to overcome diffusion limitations9. Additionally, permeabilized fibers may be unsuitable in certain tumor types that are densely cellular and highly fibrotic. Tissue homogenates are generated through mechanical disruption of the plasma membrane and are similar to permeabilized fibers in terms of mitochondrial yield and integrity10. Tissue homogenates also minimize the limitations of oxygen diffusion and can be readily employed across tissue types through optimization of mechanical force11,12.
Here, we outline a simple and rapid method to quantify rates of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and electron transfer (ET) capacity in freshly excised solid tumor homogenates. The protocol is optimally designed to evaluate fresh tissue using the Oxygraph-2k (O2k) high-resolution respirometer, which requires prior knowledge of instrumental setup and calibration but can be similarly adapted using any Clark-type electrode, Seahorse analyzer, or plate reader. The protocol can be reproducibly applied across species and tumor types as well as adapted to evaluate a diversity of mitochondrial ET pathways.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid hydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adenosine 5&#8242;-diphosphate sodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2754</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adenosine 5&#39;-triphosphate disodium salt hydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2383</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15290018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antimycin A</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A8674</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ascorbate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A4544</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin, fraction V, heat shock, fatty acid free</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3117057001</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD 50 mL Luer-Lok Syringe</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-689-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD&#160;Vacutainer General Use Syringe Needles</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23-021-020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium carbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C4830</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytochrome c from equine heart</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Datlab 7.4 software</td>
			<td>Oroboros Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylsulfoxide</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>N182</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D0632</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont # 5 Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11251-30</td>
			<td>Dumoxel, autoclavable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont # 7 Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11271-30</td>
			<td>Dumoxel, autoclavable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Calipers 150 mm/6 in</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EO771 cells</td>
			<td>CH3 BioSystems</td>
			<td>SKU:&#160;94APV1-vial-prem</td>
			<td>Pathogen Tested</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N&#8242;,N&#8242;-tetraacetic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E4378</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Female C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>&#160;Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>Stock #000664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H4034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>56750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>34120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-(&#8722;)-Malic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G1626</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lactobionic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L2398</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Malate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M6413</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrigel Matrix</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>354248</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl&#183;6H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsyringes</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>87919, 80383, 80521, 80665, 80765, 80865, 87943</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N,N&#8242;,N&#8242;-Tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T7394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygraph-2k</td>
			<td>Oroboros Instruments</td>
			<td>10023-03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygraph-2k FluoRespirometer</td>
			<td>Oroboros Instruments</td>
			<td>10003-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphocreatine disodium salt hydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P7936</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1767</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5655</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotenone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R8875</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21875034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5280</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Succinate (disodium)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>W327700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Taurine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T0625</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman Filter Paper, grade 5</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>1005-090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wheaton Tenbroeck Tissue Grinder, 7 mL</td>
			<td>Duran Wheaton Kimble</td>
			<td>357424</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight Tip Micro Dissecting Scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-5914SC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-Safety Scalpel No. 11</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1029065</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD Precision Glide Needle 27 G x 1/2</td>
			<td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>305109</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD Precision Glide Needle 18 G x 1</td>
			<td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>305195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD 1mL Slip Tip Syringe</td>
			<td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>309659</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyrex Reusable Petri Dish, 60 mm</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>316060</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rodent Very High Fat Diet,&#160; 60% kcal from fat, 20% kcal from protein, and 20% kcal from carbohydrate</td>
			<td>Research Diet</td>
			<td>D12492</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyrex Watch Glass, 100 mm</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S34819</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analytical determination of mitochondrial function of excised solid tumor homogenates

Mitochondria are essential to the onset and progression of cancer through energy production, reactive oxygen species regulation, and macromolecule synthesis. Genetic and functional adaptations of mitochondria to the tumor environment drive proliferative and metastatic potential. The advent of DNA and RNA sequencing removed critical barriers to the evaluation of genetic mediators of tumorigenesis. However, to date, methodological approaches to evaluate tumor mitochondrial function remain elusive and require technical proficiency limiting the feasibility, ultimately diminishing diagnostic and prognostic value in both experimental and clinical settings. Here, we&#160;outline a simple and rapid method to quantify rates of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and electron transfer (ET) capacity in freshly excised solid tumor homogenates using high-resolution respirometry. The protocol can be reproducibly applied across species and tumor types as well as adapted to evaluate a diversity of mitochondrial ET pathways. Using this protocol, we demonstrate that mice bearing a luminal B mammary cancer exhibit defective nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-linked respiration and reliance on succinate to generate adenosine triphosphate via OXPHOS.

Initial studies revealed that EO771 tumors were lowly oxidative and thus required high homogenate concentrations for adequate O2 flux assessment. Optimization experiments were conducted to determine the optimal tissue homogenate concentration range for the study. Tumor homogenates were initially prepared at 40 mg/mL and then linearly diluted. The O2 flux normalized to tissue mass was consistent across concentrations (Figures 1A-D). It was observed that 40 mg/mL resulted in rapid oxygen depletion and was not suitable for experimentation (Figure 1A). The oxygen consumption slowed substantially with 30 mg/mL and 20 mg/mL but still decreased rapidly in a short time in the absence of substrates or ADP (Figure 1B,C). The 10 mg/mL concentration resulted in the optimum oxygen consumption rate (Figure 1D) that would support a longer, 90-min SUIT protocol.
A SUIT protocol was used to evaluate NADH- and succinate-linked OXPHOS and ET, as well as CIV activity (Figure 2A). Pyruvate and malate were added to the tissue homogenate in the absence of ADP to drive leak (L) through NADH. Saturating ADP was then added to drive maximal NADH-linked OXPHOS (P), followed by the addition of glutamate. Cytochrome c was then added to ensure outer membrane integrity; the increase in respiration rate was less than 20% in all samples (Figure 2B). Given the very low&#160;response to NADH-linked substrates, cytochrome c release was also assessed in the presence of succinate and rotenone and observed minimal cytochrome c stimulation (Figure 2B). Interestingly, NADH-linked OXPHOS was negligible in EO771 tumors (Figure 2C). Succinate was then added in the presence of pyruvate, malate, and glutamate to stimulate electron flow through succinate dehydrogenase. FCCP was then titrated to drive maximal electron flow (E), which revealed that in EO771 tumors, phosphorylation rather than oxidation was limiting to respiration (Figure 2C). Rotenone and antimycin A were subsequently titrated to inhibit complex I and complex III, respectively. Ascorbate and TMPD were then added to drive maximal electron flow through CIV, which is then inhibited by sodium azide. Table 1 illustrates analytical reduction equations of the raw data (Table 2)&#160;to quantitate the respiratory parameters plotted in Figure 2C. Overall, the tumor homogenate respiratory profiles (Figure 2C) are similar to those of non-implanted digitonin-permeabilized EO771 cells (Figure 2D) with the exception of diminished maximal electron transfer supported by N- and S-linked substrates in the tumor.
Since NADH-linked respiration was negligible, the respiratory kinetics of succinate were further evaluated by stepwise titrations of sub-saturating ADP until the maximal rate (VMAX) was achieved (Figure 3A,3B). The half-maximal concentration (KM) of ADP in the presence of succinate + rotenone was 37.5 &#181;M, whereas the VMAX was ~10.5 pmol/s/mg (Figure 3C). Thus, despite relatively poor oxidation rates, EO771 tumors were highly sensitive to ADP and sustained ATP synthesis at relatively low ADP concentrations.
Selecting appropriate regions of the raw data for extraction is critical for the reproducibility of experiments and accurate quantification. For cytochrome c, a mark needs to be selected at the steady-state immediately prior to injection (Figure 4A, mark 1). There is often an initial injection artifact that can be followed by a period of time (about 5-10 min) where the O2 flux is not steady. Evaluation of cytochrome c efficiency is made by making an additional selection once the O2 flux has stabilized (Figure 4A, mark 2). Selections after the addition of substrates, ADP, or most inhibitors are also made after the injection artifact and once the O2 flux has stabilized (Figure 4B). The selection used to determine maximal uncoupled respiration is made at the peak increase achieved during titration of FCCP, which is often not the last injection made (Figure 4C). The selection for TMPD is made after both ascorbate and TMPD have been added and at the peak increase in respiration (Figure 4D, mark 1). Just after this peak, the inhibitor, sodium azide, is added, which rapidly decreases respiration but also often has an injection artifact lower than the inhibited respiration rate (Figure 4D). The inhibitor mark is made immediately after the injection artifact (Figure 4D, mark 2). The O2 flux will typically not stabilize and continue to decrease.
Table 1: Respiratory notation and analytical derivation. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/TABLE 1.docx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
Table 2: Sample and respiratory characteristics of luminal B mammary tumor homogenates. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/TABLE 2.docx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Optimization of tumor homogenate concentration. O2 Flux (red) and O2 Concentration (blue) in mammary tumor homogenates prepared at (A) 40 mg/mL, (B) 30 mg/mL, (C) 20 mg/mL, and (D) 10 mg/mL. Thom: Tissue homogenate respiration. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Evaluation of OXPHOS and ET capacity by high-resolution respirometry in freshly excised tumor homogenates. (A)&#160;Representative plot of oxygen consumption (red) and concentrations (blue) over the course of a substrate, inhibitor, uncoupler protocol. PM: Pyruvate + Malate, D: ADP, G: Glutamate, c: Cytochrome&#160;c, S: Succinate, F: FCCP, Rot: Rotenone, Ama: Antimycin A, Asc/TMPD: Ascorbate/Tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine. (B) Percent increase in O2 flux upon addition of cytochrome c. (C-D) Respiration supported by malate, pyruvate, glutamate, and succinate in the presence of ADP, FCCP, and ascorbate/TMPD in (C) EO771-derived tumor homogenates and (D) non-implanted EO771 digitonin-permeabilized cells. Thom: Tissue homogenate respiration; PM: Pyruvate + Malate; PMG: Pyruvate + Malate + Glutamate; PMGS: Pyruvate + Malate + Glutamate + Succinate; CIV: Complex IV; -L: Leak state; -P: Oxidative phosphorylation state, -E: Electron transfer state; N-linked: O2 flux supported by defined NADH-generating substrate combinations; NS-linked: O2 flux supported by the convergence of defined NADH-generate substrate combinations and succinate. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: EO771 mammary tumors displayed high ADP (adenosine 5&#8242;-diphosphate) sensitivity. (A)&#160;Representative plot of oxygen consumption (red) and concentrations (blue) throughout an S-linked ADP titration protocol. Thom: Tissue homogenate respiration; S/Rot: Succinate/Rotenone; D: ADP. (B) Respiration supported by succinate in the presence of rotenone and increasing concentrations of ADP (0 &#181;M ADP = S/Rot-L). (C) Maximal rate (VMAX) and half-maximal concentration (KM) of ADP in the presence of succinate + rotenone. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Representative tracing illustrating mark selection of raw O2 fluxes for data extraction. (A) Cytochrome c selection: selection number 1 before the Cytochrome c injection and selection number 2 after the injection when the O2 flux has stabilized. c Cytochrome c. (B) Substrate, ADP, and inhibitor selection: selection number 1 after the injection (succinate in this representative plot) where the O2 flux has stabilized. S: Succinate. (C) Uncoupler selection: selection number 1 at the peak increase in respiration during the uncoupler titration. In this representative FCCP titration plot, the third injection slightly decreases respiration and thus is not used for selection. F: ACCP. (D) TMPD selection: selection number 1 at the peak increase of respiration after the ascorbate and TMPD injections. Sodium azide selection: selection number 2 after the acute injection artifact when the respiration initially decreases. As/Tm: Ascorbate/TMPD; Azd: Azide. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62875/62875fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analytical Determination of Mitochondrial Function of Excised Solid Tumor Homogenates at JoVE.com

Analytical Determination of Mitochondrial Function of Excised Solid Tumor Homogenates

We developed a practical protocol and analytical approach to evaluate mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and electron transfer capacity in fresh tumor homogenates. This protocol can be easily adapted to survey various mitochondrial functions that contribute to cancer initiation, progression, and treatment response.

Mitochondria are essential to the onset and progression of cancer through energy production, reactive oxygen species regulation, and macromolecule ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

A Murine Orthotopic Bladder Tumor Model and Tumor Detection System

This protocol describes the generation of bladder tumors in female C57BL/6J mice using the murine bladder cancer cell line MB49, which has been modified ...

Evaluating the Role of Mitochondrial Function in Cancer-related Fatigue

Fatigue is a common and debilitating condition that affects most cancer patients. To date, fatigue remains poorly characterized with no diagnostic test to ...

Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay for the Genetic Variation in a Sporadic Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Patient Using the Chip-in-a-tube Format

The quantitative analysis of human genetic variation is crucial for understanding the molecular characteristics of serious medical conditions, such as ...

Three-Dimensional Bone Extracellular Matrix Model for Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common and a highly aggressive primary bone tumor. It is characterized with anatomic and histologic variations along with ...

In Vitro Tumor Cell Rechallenge For Predictive Evaluation of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Antitumor Function

The field of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is rapidly advancing with improvements in CAR design, gene-engineering approaches and ...

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species in Murine Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells and MLL-AF9 Driven Leukemia

We present a flow cytometric approach for analyzing mitochondrial ROS in various live bone marrow (BM)-derived stem and progenitor cell populations from ...

Analysis of Side Population in Solid Tumor Cell Lines

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are an important cause of tumor growth, metastasis, and recurrence. Isolation and identification of CSCs are of great ...

A Novel Stromal Fibroblast-Modulated 3D Tumor Spheroid Model for Studying Tumor-Stroma Interaction and Drug Discovery

Tumor-stroma interactions play an important role in cancer progression. Three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models are the most widely used in vitro ...

An Automated Differential Nuclear Staining Assay for Accurate Determination of Mitocan Cytotoxicity

The contribution of mitochondria to oncogenic transformation is a subject of wide interest and active study. As the field of cancer metabolism becomes ...

Modeling Primary Bone Tumors and Bone Metastasis with Solid Tumor Graft Implantation into Bone

Primary bone tumors or bone metastasis from solid tumors result in painful osteolytic, osteoblastic, or mixed osteolytic/osteoblastic lesions. These ...