We acknowledge financial support from the Department of Bioengineering at Imperial College London and The Leverhulme Trust (Research Grant Reference: RPG-2020-352).

The authors declare no competing interests.

This article presents a protocol for the study of fungal-microbial interactions using channel microfluidics. The authors aim to demonstrate the versatility of these devices and encourage adaptation to suit the researcher&#39;s interests. Using the exemplar BFI and FFI devices, fungal-microbial interactions can be studied in more detail than previously accessible. By removing the background complexity and heterogeneity of the soil, moderating the growth of hyphae such that they are confined to a single monolayer, and tigh...

Soil is an exceptionally diverse environment containing an abundance of microorganisms that are instrumental to carbon and phosphorous cycles1,2. Filamentous fungi are a major component of numerous ecosystems as decomposers of organic and inorganic matter and can enhance the nutrition of plants through the formation of symbiotic relationships3,4. Within soil, fungi interact dynamically with a multitude of microbes such as other fungi5, bacteria6, viruses7 and nematodes8. These interactions have significant consequences for soil and plant health. Yet, owing to a lack of appropriate experimental systems capable of imaging interacting microorganisms with high-resolution, many remain undefined.
Investigations concerning bacterial-fungal interactions (BFIs) and fungal-fungal interactions (FFIs) have valuable applications in a range of fields, including antimicrobials in medicine and biological control agents in agriculture. For example, the fungus Coprinopsis cinerea produces the peptide copsin, which has been shown to exhibit antibacterial activity against the human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes9. Similarly, the fungal-derived compound, griseofulvin, is widely used as a treatment for human fungal infections and is additionally able to inhibit the growth of the plant pathogenic fungus Alternaria solani10,11. Several strains of the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus subtilis have also been demonstrated to be effective biocontrol agents of the fungal plant pathogen Rhizoctonia solani12,13. Nonetheless, due to limitations associated with traditional methodologies, BFIs and FFIs are poorly understood at the level of single cells.
Conventional studies typically explore BFIs and FFIs on the macroscale using agar plates with two or more species in confrontation. Their interaction is assessed by measuring growth rates and metabolite production of the confronting species14,15,16; however, this methodology is only resolved to the colony level. To study interactions at the cellular level, bacterial and fungal inoculants can be cultivated on glass microscope slides coated with agar that are then imaged under a microscope17. Nevertheless, it can be difficult to follow a single hypha using microscope slides due to a lack of confinement, meaning time-lapse images are harder to obtain. Further, the opportunity to spatially confine other microorganisms within defined regions of the fungal mycelium or create defined chemical environments that can be perturbed, for example, is not possible in such set-ups. The &#34;black box&#34; nature of soil also adds to the complexity of studying fungal-microbial interactions at the level of single cells18. By observing interacting species away from the incredible diversity of the soil microbiome, the exact manner by which individual members interact can be assessed. Thus, there is a continued need for versatile platforms that enable high-resolution, single-cell imaging of BFIs and FFIs.
Microfluidic technologies, so-called lab-on-a-chip systems, provide an ideal platform for the study of BFIs and FFIs at the level of single cells. The field of microfluidics, originating from technologies developed for chemical analysis and microelectronics, has been adopted by the biological sciences19. Microfluidic technologies regulate small volumes of fluids within a bespoke network of miniaturised channels, having at least one dimension on the micrometre scale, and their use in biological research is expanding20. In particular, microfluidic devices have been developed to examine the growth of filamentous fungi21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30. One benefit of using this technology is that the confinement of hyphae and the distribution of nutrients within microchannels more closely resembles the structure of the soil environment than conventional agar methods31. Recently, microfluidic platforms have been used to investigate interactions between human neutrophils and fungal pathogens32, bacteria and plant roots33, as well as fungi and nematodes34,35.
One of the many advantages of using microfluidics for studying microbial interactions includes the specific control of the microchannel environment. For instance, laminar flow regimes can be exploited to generate defined concentration gradients, which is especially useful when examining bacterial chemotaxis36. Another advantage is that the transparent nature of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), an inexpensive, biocompatible elastomeric polymer commonly used in the manufacture of microfluidic devices, facilitates high-resolution imaging of single cells using brightfield and fluorescence microscopy37. Likewise, the confinement of microbes within microchannels means that time-lapse experiments tracking single cells can be performed, allowing individual cellular responses to be recorded and quantified37. Lastly, as microfluidic devices can be designed to be user-friendly, they can be easily employed by non-experts38.
Furthering knowledge of the interactions between soil-dwelling microorganisms is important for improving sustainable ecosystem management practises that maintain biodiversity and to mitigate the impact of climate change on terrestrial environments39. Thus, the development of novel microfluidic tools is fundamental to expand understanding of fungi and their interactions at the cellular level. The protocol here will focus on two microfluidic devices produced for the study of BFIs40&#160;and FFIs41&#160;as represented in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63917/63917fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Visual and schematic representation of the bacterial-fungal interaction (BFI) and fungal-fungal interaction (FFI) devices. (A) Image of the BFI device. A mycelial plug is placed at the entrance to one end of the microchannels to allow hyphal growth into the device. The bacterial inlet is at the opposite end. Scale bar = 5 mm. (B) Schematic overview of the BFI device, depicting the positioning of the bacterial inlets and direction of hyphal growth through the interaction microchannels. The channels are 10 &#181;m in depth, 100 &#181;m wide, and 7 mm long, with 28 observation channels in total. (C) Confrontation assay on agar plate between Coprinopsis cinerea and Bacillus subtilis NCIB 3610, scale bar = 20 mm (left). Microscopy images showing the interaction between C. cinerea and B. subtilis NCIB 3610 within the microchannel (middle and right), i.e., polar attachment of bacteria to fungal hyphae. Scale bar = 25 &#181;m (middle) and 10 &#181;m (right). (D) Image of the FFI device bonded to a glass-bottomed Petri dish, dual inoculated with mycelial plugs. Scale bar = 1 cm. (E) Schematic overview of the FFI device. Two fungal inoculant plugs are introduced into the inlets at either end of the device, permitting hyphal exploration of the microchannels. Control channels are connected to one fungal inlet only and have a dead-end channel, preventing interactions between the test fungi. Interaction channels connect both fungal inlets and permit hyphal interactions between the test subjects within the microchannel. Each interaction channel consists of 18 diamond-shaped sections, measuring a total length of 8.8 mm (490 x 430 &#181;m per diamond), 10 &#181;m deep, and having a connecting region between each diamond of 20 &#181;m. Channel types are duplicated, scale bars = 1 mm. (F) Interaction zone between two approaching hyphal fronts, growing from opposite ends of the interconnected interaction channel. Phase contrast microscopy image, scale bar = 250 &#181;m. The panels in this figure have been modified from Stanley et al., 2014 (A-C)40 and Gimeno et al., 2021 (D-F)41. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63917/63917fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Difco Laboratories</td>
			<td>214010</td>
			<td>Used to solidify culture medium for bacterial and fungal cultivation within Petri dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminum foil</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>11759408</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AutoCAD 2021</td>
			<td>Autodesk, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclave (VX-75)</td>
			<td>Systec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge (5810R)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chlorotrimethysilane</td>
			<td>Merck Life Sciences</td>
			<td>386529</td>
			<td>CAUTION: Chlorotrimethylsilane is a hazardous substance. Wear appropriate PPE and handle with care. Avoid contact with skin and eyes and prevent inhalation. Keep away from sources of ignition and use in a well-ventilated area.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cork borer</td>
			<td>SLS</td>
			<td>COR1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Developer solution (mr-Dev 600)</td>
			<td>Microresist Technologies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CAUTION: mr-Dev 600 developer solution is flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flasks</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>214-1108</td>
			<td>e.g. 200 mL; choose size to suit your exact needs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol (70% v/v)&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>E/0650DF/15</td>
			<td>Diluted from 99.8% (Analytical Reagent Grade)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiji</td>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar software package for imaging processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filtered, compressed air</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available as standard in most labs. Altervatively, an oil-free compressor with air regulator can be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flat-headed wafer tweezers</td>
			<td>SLS</td>
			<td>INS5026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>10008051</td>
			<td>Bent, sharp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass bottom petri dish</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>FD35-100</td>
			<td>35 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass bottom petri dish</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>FD5040-100</td>
			<td>50 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass crystallisation dishes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>216-1865</td>
			<td>Used for washing of PDMS slabs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass crystallisation dishes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>216-1866</td>
			<td>Used in the development of master moulds</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass media bottles</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>15456113</td>
			<td>e.g. 250 mL; choose size to suit your exact needs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe (Hamilton)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>10625251</td>
			<td>Used for dispensing chlorotrimethylsilane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate (HP 160 III BM)</td>
			<td>SAWATEC</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inoculation loop</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>COPA175CS01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>W292907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laminar flow hood</td>
			<td>Air Science (PCR)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar laminar flow hood used for device fabrication</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB medium</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>BP9723-500</td>
			<td>Exemplar nutrient broth for bacterial overnight culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light emitting diode light engine (LedHUB)</td>
			<td>Omicron-Laserage Laserprodukte GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar light source that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions (fluorescence)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MA6 Ultraviolet mask aligner</td>
			<td>Suss Microtec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Malt extract</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>84618</td>
			<td>Used to make exemplar fungal culture medium (Malt extract agar)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mask Writer</td>
			<td>Applied Materials</td>
			<td>4700DP</td>
			<td>Example of a mask writer which can be used to print photo-mask for photolithography</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Master mould plastic mount</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3D-printed bespoke holder manufactured in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microbiological safety cabinet&#160; (BioMat2)</td>
			<td>Contained Air Solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar MSC used for microbial culture and device inoculation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Milli-Q purified water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available as standard in biology labs.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>BP359-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIS-Elements Advanced Research imaging software</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar software package for image acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIS-Elements Free Viewer</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar software package for viewing acquired images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oven (Binder BD115)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>15602126</td>
			<td>Used for curing poly(dimethylsiloxane)(PDMS)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oven (CLO-2AH-S)</td>
			<td>KOYO</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used for preparing silicon wafers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Bemis</td>
			<td>HS234526B</td>
			<td>transparent film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes, square sterile</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>11708573</td>
			<td>120.5 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes, sterile</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>15370366</td>
			<td>90 mm&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photolithography mask</td>
			<td>Micro Lithography Services Ltd. UK</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma cleaner (Zepto)</td>
			<td>Diener Electronic</td>
			<td>100012601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic cup</td>
			<td>Semadeni</td>
			<td>8323</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic spatula</td>
			<td>Semadeni</td>
			<td>3340</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Portable precision balance (OHAUS Scout)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>15519631</td>
			<td>Used for weighing PDMS, media components etc.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision cutter</td>
			<td>Syneo</td>
			<td>HS1251135P1183</td>
			<td>Cutting edge diameter: 3.18 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision cutter&#160;</td>
			<td>Syneo</td>
			<td>HS1871730P1183S</td>
			<td>Cutting edge diameter: 4.75 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Profilometer&#160;</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dektak XT-stylus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blades</td>
			<td>H&#228;berle Labortechnik</td>
			<td>9156110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refridgerator</td>
			<td>Haden</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>4-6 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retiga R1 CCD camera</td>
			<td>Qimaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar camera that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scotch magic tape</td>
			<td>Office Depot</td>
			<td>3969954</td>
			<td>19 mm invisible tape; clear tape</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaking incubator (Cole-Parmer SI500)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>10257954</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer</td>
			<td>Inseto</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>100 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soda lime glass plate</td>
			<td>Inseto</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>125 mm x 125 mm x 2 mm. Used to hold photolithography mask in mask aligner</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spincoater&#160;</td>
			<td>SAWATEC</td>
			<td>SM-180-BM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 2010 photoresist</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CAUTION: SU-8 photoresist is hazardous, take care when handling and prevent inhalation and contact with skin. Flammable, potentially carcinogenic and toxic to the environment.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184 elastomer kit</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>634165S</td>
			<td>Used for the preparation of poly(dimethylsiloxane)(PDMS) devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature controlled incubator</td>
			<td>Okolab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Exemplar incubator that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ti2-E inverted epifluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>MEA54000</td>
			<td>Exemplar microscope that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonic cleaner S-Line</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>FB15050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum desiccator</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Ltd</td>
			<td>10528861</td>
			<td>Silianisation and PDMS degassing should be conducted in separate desiccators</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>x10/0.3 NA CFI Plan Fluor DL objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>MRH20105</td>
			<td>Exemplar objective lens that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>x20/0.45 NA CFI Plan Fluor DL objective lens</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>MRH48230</td>
			<td>Exemplar objective lens that can be used for imaging fungal-microbial interactions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microfluidic tools for probing fungal-microbial interactions at the cellular level

Filamentous fungi are successful inhabitants of soil and play a major role in soil ecosystems, such as in the decomposition of organic and inorganic matter, as well as regulation of nutrient levels. There they also find numerous opportunities to interact with a variety of other microbes such as bacteria or other fungi. Studying fungal interactions at the cellular level, however, can be challenging owing to the black box-like nature of soil. New microfluidic tools are being developed for the study of fungal interactions; two platforms designed to study bacterial-fungal and fungal-fungal interactions are highlighted. Within these microchannels, fungal-microbial interactions can be monitored in controlled physico-chemical environments at higher temporal and spatial resolution than previously possible. Application of these tools have yielded numerous novel biological insights, such as the observation of bacterial polar attachment to hyphae or revealing uncharacterised fungal-fungal antagonisms. A key feature of these methodologies regards the ease of use of this tool by non-experts, yielding highly translatable technologies for use in microbiology labs.

Representative results are presented from the exemplar BFI40 and FFI41 devices. Hyphal growth rate measurements can easily be obtained using these devices in combination with basic microscopy techniques. Figure 3A-B illustrates bacterial-fungal interactions between C. cinerea hyphae and B. subtilis NCIB 3610. The presence of B. subtilis halts the growth of C. cinerea after ca...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microfluidic Tools for Probing Fungal-Microbial Interactions at the Cellular Level at JoVE.com

Microfluidic Tools for Probing Fungal-Microbial Interactions at the Cellular Level

Owing to the opacity of soil, interactions between its constituent microbes cannot easily be visualised with cellular resolution. Here, two microfluidic tools are presented, which offer new opportunities for investigating fungal-microbial interactions. The devices are versatile and simple to use, enabling high spatiotemporal control and high-resolution imaging at the cellular level.

Filamentous fungi are successful inhabitants of soil and play a major role in soil ecosystems, such as in the decomposition of organic and inorganic ...

microfluidic-tools-for-probing-fungal-microbial-interactions-at

Research

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Bioengineering

3.4K Views.  Imperial College London. Owing to the opacity of soil, interactions between its constituent microbes cannot easily be visualised with cellular resolution. Here, two microfluidic tools are presented, which offer new opportunities for investigating fungal-microbial interactions. The devices are versatile and simple to use, enabling high spatiotemporal control and high-resolution imaging at the cellular level.

Video: Microfluidic Tools for Probing Fungal-Microbial Interactions at the Cellular Level

A Microfluidic-based Hydrodynamic Trap for Single Particles

The ability to confine and manipulate single particles in free solution is a key enabling technology for fundamental and applied science. Methods for particle trapping based on optical, magnetic, electrokinetic, and acoustic techniques have led to major advancements in physics and biology ranging from the molecular to cellular level. In this article, we introduce a new microfluidic-based technique for particle trapping and manipulation based solely on hydrodynamic fluid flow. Using this method, we demonstrate trapping of micro- and nano-scale particles in aqueous solutions for long time scales. The hydrodynamic trap consists of an integrated microfluidic device with a cross-slot channel geometry where two opposing laminar streams converge, thereby generating a planar extensional flow with a fluid stagnation point (zero-velocity point). In this device, particles are confined at the trap center by active control of the flow field to maintain particle position at the fluid stagnation point. In this manner, particles are effectively trapped in free solution using a feedback control algorithm implemented with a custom-built LabVIEW code. The control algorithm consists of image acquisition for a particle in the microfluidic device, followed by particle tracking, determination of particle centroid position, and active adjustment of fluid flow by regulating the pressure applied to an on-chip pneumatic valve using a pressure regulator. In this way, the on-chip dynamic metering valve functions to regulate the relative flow rates in the outlet channels, thereby enabling fine-scale control of stagnation point position and particle trapping. The microfluidic-based hydrodynamic trap exhibits several advantages as a method for particle trapping. Hydrodynamic trapping is possible for any arbitrary particle without specific requirements on the physical or chemical properties of the trapped object. In addition, hydrodynamic trapping enables confinement of a "single" target object in concentrated or crowded particle suspensions, which is difficult using alternative force field-based trapping methods. The hydrodynamic trap is user-friendly, straightforward to implement and may be added to existing microfluidic devices to facilitate trapping and long-time analysis of particles. Overall, the hydrodynamic trap is a new platform for confinement, micromanipulation, and observation of particles without surface immobilization and eliminates the need for potentially perturbative optical, magnetic, and electric fields in the free-solution trapping of small particles.

In this article, we present a microfluidic-based method for particle confinement based on hydrodynamic flow. We demonstrate stable particle trapping at a fluid stagnation point using a feedback control mechanism, thereby enabling confinement and micromanipulation of arbitrary particles in an integrated microdevice.

The ability to confine and manipulate single particles in free solution is a key enabling technology for fundamental and applied science.  Methods for ...

Adhesion Frequency Assay for In Situ Kinetics Analysis of Cross-Junctional Molecular Interactions at the Cell-Cell Interface

The micropipette adhesion assay was developed in 1998 to measure two-dimensional (2D) receptor-ligand binding kinetics1. The assay uses a human red blood cell (RBC) as adhesion sensor and presenting cell for one of the interacting molecules. It employs micromanipulation to bring the RBC into contact with another cell that expresses the other interacting molecule with precisely controlled area and time to enable bond formation. The adhesion event is detected as RBC elongation upon pulling the two cells apart. By controlling the density of the ligands immobilized on the RBC surface, the probability of adhesion is kept in mid-range between 0 and 1. The adhesion probability is estimated from the frequency of adhesion events in a sequence of repeated contact cycles between the two cells for a given contact time. Varying the contact time generates a binding curve. Fitting a probabilistic model for receptor-ligand reaction kinetics1 to the binding curve returns the 2D affinity and off-rate.
The assay has been validated using interactions of Fc&gamma; receptors with IgG Fc1-6, selectins with glycoconjugate ligands6-9, integrins with ligands10-13, homotypical cadherin binding14, T cell receptor and coreceptor with peptide-major histocompatibility complexes15-19.
The method has been used to quantify regulations of 2D kinetics by biophysical factors, such as the membrane microtopology5, membrane anchor2, molecular orientation and length6, carrier stiffness9, curvature20, and impingement force20, as well as biochemical factors, such as modulators of the cytoskeleton and membrane microenvironment where the interacting molecules reside and the surface organization of these molecules15,17,19.
The method has also been used to study the concurrent binding of dual receptor-ligand species3,4, and trimolecular interactions19 using a modified model21.
The major advantage of the method is that it allows study of receptors in their native membrane environment. The results could be very different from those obtained using purified receptors17. It also allows study of the receptor-ligand interactions in a sub-second timescale with temporal resolution well beyond the typical biochemical methods.
To illustrate the micropipette adhesion frequency method, we show kinetics measurement of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) functionalized on RBCs binding to integrin &alpha;L&beta;2 on neutrophils with dimeric E-selectin in the solution to activate &alpha;L&beta;2.

Adhesion Frequency Assay for In Situ Kinetics Analysis of Cross-Junctional Molecular Interactions at the Cell-Cell Interface

An adhesion frequency assay for measuring receptor-ligand interaction kinetics when both molecules are anchored on the surfaces of the interacting cells is described. This mechanically-based assay is exemplified using a micropipette-pressurized human red blood cell as adhesion sensor and integrin &alpha;L&beta;2 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 as interacting receptors and ligands.

The micropipette adhesion assay was developed in 1998 to measure two-dimensional (2D) receptor-ligand binding kinetics1. The assay uses a human red blood ...

Spatio-Temporal Manipulation of Small GTPase Activity at Subcellular Level and on Timescale of Seconds in Living Cells

Dynamic regulation of the Rho family of small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) with great spatiotemporal precision is essential for various cellular functions and events1, 2. Their spatiotemporally dynamic nature has been revealed by visualization of their activity and localization in real time3. In order to gain deeper understanding of their roles in diverse cellular functions at the molecular level, the next step should be perturbation of protein activities at a precise subcellular location and timing. 
To achieve this goal, we have developed a method for light-induced, spatio-temporally controlled activation of small GTPases by combining two techniques: (1) rapamycin-induced FKBP-FRB heterodimerization and (2) a photo-caging method of rapamycin. With the use of rapamycin-mediated FKBP-FRB heterodimerization, we have developed a method for rapidly inducible activation or inactivation of small GTPases including Rac4, Cdc424, RhoA4 and Ras5, in which rapamycin induces translocation of FKBP-fused GTPases, or their activators, to the plasma membrane where FRB is anchored. For coupling with this heterodimerization system, we have also developed a photo-caging system of rapamycin analogs. A photo-caged compound is a small molecule whose activity is suppressed with a photocleavable protecting group known as a caging group. To suppress heterodimerization activity completely, we designed a caged rapamycin that is tethered to a macromolecule such that the resulting large complex cannot cross the plasma membrane, leading to virtually no background activity as a chemical dimerizer inside cells6. Figure 1 illustrates a scheme of our system. With the combination of these two systems, we locally recruited a Rac activator to the plasma membrane on a timescale of seconds and achieved light-induced Rac activation at the subcellular level6.

A method for spatio-temporal control of small GTPase activity by light is described. This method is based on rapamycin-induced FKBP-FRB heterodimerization and photo-caging systems. Optimization of light-irradiation enables the spatio-temporally controlled activation of small GTPases at the subcellular level.

Dynamic regulation of the Rho family of small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) with great spatiotemporal precision is essential for various cellular ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Quantitative and Temporal Control of Oxygen Microenvironment at the Single Islet Level

Simultaneous oxygenation and monitoring of glucose stimulus-secretion coupling factors in a single technique is critical for modeling pathophysiological states of islet hypoxia, especially in transplant environments. Standard hypoxic chamber techniques cannot modulate both stimulations at the same time nor provide real-time monitoring of glucose stimulus-secretion coupling factors. To address these difficulties, we applied a multilayered microfluidic technique to integrate both aqueous and gas phase modulations via a diffusion membrane. This creates a stimulation sandwich around the microscaled islets within the transparent polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) device, enabling monitoring of the aforementioned coupling factors via fluorescence microscopy. Additionally, the gas input is controlled by a pair of microdispensers, providing quantitative, sub-minute modulations of oxygen between 0-21%. This intermittent hypoxia is applied to investigate a new phenomenon of islet preconditioning. Moreover, armed with multimodal microscopy, we were able to look at detailed calcium and KATP channel dynamics during these hypoxic events. We envision microfluidic hypoxia, especially this simultaneous dual phase technique, as a valuable tool in studying islets as well as many ex vivo tissues.

Microfluidic oxygen control confers more than just convenience and speed over hypoxic chambers for biological experiments. Especially when implemented via diffusion through a membrane, microfluidic oxygen can provide simultaneous liquid and gas phase modulations at the microscale-level. This technique enables dynamic multi-parametric experiments critical for studying islet pathophysiology.

Simultaneous oxygenation and monitoring of glucose stimulus-secretion coupling factors in a single technique is critical for modeling pathophysiological ...

Lipid Bilayer Vesicle Generation Using Microfluidic Jetting

Bottom-up synthetic biology presents a novel approach for investigating and reconstituting biochemical systems and, potentially, minimal organisms. This emerging field engages engineers, chemists, biologists, and physicists to design and assemble basic biological components into complex, functioning systems from the bottom up. Such bottom-up systems could lead to the development of artificial cells for fundamental biological inquiries and innovative therapies1,2. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) can serve as a model platform for synthetic biology due to their cell-like membrane structure and size. Microfluidic jetting, or microjetting, is a technique that allows for the generation of GUVs with controlled size, membrane composition, transmembrane protein incorporation, and encapsulation3. The basic principle of this method is the use of multiple, high-frequency fluid pulses generated by a piezo-actuated inkjet device to deform a suspended lipid bilayer into a GUV. The process is akin to blowing soap bubbles from a soap film. By varying the composition of the jetted solution, the composition of the encompassing solution, and/or the components included in the bilayer, researchers can apply this technique to create customized vesicles. This paper describes the procedure to generate simple vesicles from a droplet interface bilayer by microjetting.

Microfluidic jetting against a droplet interface lipid bilayer provides a reliable way to generate vesicles with control over membrane asymmetry, incorporation of transmembrane proteins, and encapsulation of material. This technique can be applied to study a variety of biological systems where compartmentalized biomolecules are desired.

Bottom-up synthetic biology presents a novel approach for investigating and reconstituting biochemical systems and, potentially, minimal organisms. This ...

Co-culture of Living Microbiome with Microengineered Human Intestinal Villi in a Gut-on-a-Chip Microfluidic Device

Here, we describe a protocol to perform long-term co-culture of multi-species human gut microbiome with microengineered intestinal villi in a human gut-on-a-chip microphysiological device. We recapitulate the intestinal lumen-capillary tissue interface in a microfluidic device, where physiological mechanical deformations and fluid shear flow are constantly applied to mimic peristalsis. In the lumen microchannel, human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells are cultured to form a &#39;germ-free&#39; villus epithelium and regenerate small intestinal villi. Pre-cultured microbial cells are inoculated into the lumen side to establish a host-microbe ecosystem. After microbial cells adhere to the apical surface of the villi, fluid flow and mechanical deformations are resumed to produce a steady-state microenvironment in which fresh culture medium is constantly supplied and unbound bacteria (as well as bacterial wastes) are continuously removed. After extended co-culture from days to weeks, multiple microcolonies are found to be randomly located between the villi, and both microbial and epithelial cells remain viable and functional for at least one week in culture. Our co-culture protocol can be adapted to provide a versatile platform for other host-microbiome ecosystems that can be found in various human organs, which may facilitate in vitro study of the role of human microbiome in orchestrating health and disease.

We describe an in vitro protocol to co-culture gut microbiome and intestinal villi for an extended period using a human gut-on-a-chip microphysiological system.

Here, we describe a protocol to perform long-term co-culture of multi-species human gut microbiome with microengineered intestinal villi in a human ...

Designing Microfluidic Devices for Studying Cellular Responses Under Single or Coexisting Chemical/Electrical/Shear Stress Stimuli

Microfluidic devices are capable of creating a precise and controllable cellular micro-environment of pH, temperature, salt concentration, and other physical or chemical stimuli. They have been commonly used for in vitro cell studies by providing in vivo like surroundings. Especially, how cells response to chemical gradients, electrical fields, and shear stresses has drawn many interests since these phenomena are important in understanding cellular properties and functions. These microfluidic chips can be made of glass substrates, silicon wafers, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) polymers, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) substrates, or polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) substrates. Out of these materials, PMMA substrates are cheap and can be easily processed using laser ablation and writing. Although a few microfluidic devices have been designed and fabricated for generating multiple, coexisting chemical and electrical stimuli, none of them was considered efficient enough in reducing experimental repeats, particular for screening purposes. In this report, we describe our design and fabrication of two PMMA-based microfluidic chips for investigating cellular responses, in the production of reactive oxygen species and the migration, under single or coexisting chemical/electrical/shear stress stimuli. The first chip generates five relative concentrations of 0, 1/8, 1/2, 7/8, and 1 in the culture regions, together with a shear stress gradient produced inside each of these areas. The second chip generates the same relative concentrations, but with five different electric field strengths created within each culture area. These devices not only provide cells with a precise, controllable micro-environment but also greatly increase the experimental throughput.

Micro-fabricated devices integrated with fluidic components provide an in vitro platform for cell studies mimicking the in vivo micro-environment. We developed polymethylmethacrylate-based microfluidic chips for studying cellular responses under single or coexisting chemical/electrical/shear stress stimuli.

Microfluidic devices are capable of creating a precise and controllable cellular micro-environment of pH, temperature, salt concentration, and other ...

A Microfluidic System with Surface Patterning for Investigating Cavitation Bubble(s)&#8211;Cell Interaction and the Resultant Bioeffects at the Single-cell Level

In this manuscript, we first describe the fabrication protocol of a microfluidic chip, with gold dots and fibronectin-coated regions on the same glass substrate, that precisely controls the generation of tandem bubbles and individual cells patterned nearby with well-defined locations and shapes. We then demonstrate the generation of tandem bubbles by using two pulsed lasers illuminating a pair of gold dots with a few-microsecond time delay. We visualize the bubble-bubble interaction and jet formation by high-speed imaging and characterize the resultant flow field using particle image velocimetry (PIV). Finally, we present some applications of this technique for single cell analysis, including cell membrane poration with macromolecule uptake, localized membrane deformation determined by the displacements of attached integrin-binding beads, and intracellular calcium response from ratiometric imaging. Our results show that a fast and directional jetting flow is produced by the tandem bubble interaction, which can impose a highly localized shear stress on the surface of a cell grown in close proximity. Furthermore, different bioeffects can be induced by altering the strength of the jetting flow by adjusting the standoff distance from the cell to the tandem bubbles.

A microfluidic chip was fabricated to produce pairs of gold dots for tandem bubble generation and fibronectin-coated islands for single-cell patterning nearby. The resultant flow field was characterized by particle image velocimetry and was employed to study various bioeffects, including cell membrane poration, membrane deformation, and intracellular calcium response.

In this manuscript, we first describe the fabrication protocol of a microfluidic chip, with gold dots and fibronectin-coated regions on the same glass ...

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to entry for non-specialists who would benefit greatly from the ability to develop their own microfluidic devices to address research questions. Particularly lacking has been the open dissemination of protocols related to photolithography, a key step in the development of a replica mold for the manufacture of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. While the fabrication of single height silicon masters has been explored extensively in literature, fabrication steps for more complicated photolithography features necessary for many interesting device functionalities (such as feature rounding to make valve structures, multi-height single-mold patterning, or high aspect ratio definition) are often not explicitly outlined. 
Here, we provide a complete protocol for making multilayer microfluidic devices with valves and complex multi-height geometries, tunable for any application. These fabrication procedures are presented in the context of a microfluidic hydrogel bead synthesizer and demonstrate the production of droplets containing polyethylene glycol (PEG diacrylate) and a photoinitiator that can be polymerized into solid beads. This protocol and accompanying discussion provide a foundation of design principles and fabrication methods that enables development of a wide variety of microfluidic devices. The details included here should allow non-specialists to design and fabricate novel devices, thereby bringing a host of recently developed technologies to their most exciting applications in biological laboratories.

Multilayer microfluidic devices often involve the fabrication of master molds with complex geometries for functionality. This article presents a complete protocol for multi-step photolithography with valves and variable height features tunable to any application. As a demonstration, we fabricate a microfluidic droplet generator capable of producing hydrogel beads.

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to ...