This work is supported by the NSF Division of Undergraduate Education (award # 2021157) as part of the IUSE: EHR program

1. Building and assembly of the ping-pong cannon (PPC)
<ol>
	<li>Assemble all the components of the PPC according to Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Insert two high-clarity acrylic windows in the sides of the cannon to allow for optical probing across the interior of the cannon.
	<ol>
		<li>Drill two 1/2 in holes through opposite sides of the PVC near the cannon&#39;s exit.</li>
		<li>Prepare two 1/8 in thick acrylic windows using a laser engraver. Download the three supplementary svg files. 
		NOTE: There are three files labeled &#34;JoVE_AcrylicWindows_Step1_Engrave.svg&#34; 
		(Supplementary File 1), &#34;JoVE_AcrylicWindows_Step2_Engrave.svg&#34; 
		(Supplementary File 2), and &#34;JoVE_AcrylicWindows_Step3_Cut.svg&#34; 
		(Supplementary File 3). These three files should be used in the order provided by using the process described in the title (engrave/cut). The laser speed and power settings should be set according to the manufacturer&#39;s recommended settings for acrylic. Each engraving step should remove approximately 1/3 of the thickness of the material.</li>
		<li>Add silicon sealant to the edge of the acrylic, being careful not to get any on the window. Then, place windows in the holes, ensuring they are perpendicular to one another. Leave ample time for the silicone to cure after this part of the process. 
		NOTE: If a laser cutter is not available, a piece of clear tape can be wrapped around the circumference of the pipe to seal the 1/2 in holes and act as a window through into the interior of the pipe. Further experimentation can be carried out by inserting additional windows in the cannon to measure the velocity and acceleration of the ping-pong ball along the length of the driven pipe.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Using a belt sander, sand off the face of the flange at the exit of the cannon. Finish sanding with fine-grit sandpaper so that the tape can adhere well to the flange.</li>
	<li>Using a laser cutter, cut an acrylic cap following &#34;JoVE_AcrylicCap_Cut.svg&#34; (Supplementary File 4). Attach a full-faced rubber gasket to the acrylic cap. The acrylic cap is a component of the pressure seal used when firing the PPC.</li>
	<li>Firmly secure the cannon for firing, and position a sturdy container to safely catch the ping-pong ball with ample padding to minimize the impact with the back wall of the container. 
	NOTE: There are many solutions for securing the ping-pong cannon and safely catching the ball. For the presented experiment, a custom clamping system was created to firmly secure the cannon with a horizontal orientation. These clamps can be constructed following &#34;JoVE_CannonMountTemplate.png&#34; (Supplementary File 5).
	<ol>
		<li>Use Supplementary File 5 as a template to cut out 2 in x 6 in wood planks. Connect the upper and lower portions of the clamping system with a draw latch and hinge to secure the cannon.</li>
		<li>Line the insides of the clamps with rubber gasket material to prevent the slipping of the cannon during the firing process. Attach the connected upper and lower portions of the clamping system to the base using four corner brackets.</li>
		<li>Mount the completed clamping system to a tabletop using four C-clamps. Construct a 13 in x 13 in x 24 in plywood container, and back it with four 1 in plywood sheets to catch the ping-pong ball. Place a cushioning material in the container to prevent ball rebounds. Mount this container with C-clamps to a tabletop.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Building and assembly of the supersonic ping-pong cannon (SSPPC)
<ol>
	<li>Assemble all the components of the driver pipe following Figure 2. 
	NOTE: The primary difference between the PPC and the SSPPC is that the SSPPC is augmented with a driving, pressurized section of schedule 80 PVC pipe that is connected to the entrance of the PPC. Therefore, if the PPC has already been constructed, all that remains to be assembled to construct the SSPPC is the driver pipe section.</li>
	<li>Firmly secure the cannon for firing and position a sturdy container that can safely catch the ping-pong ball with ample padding to minimize the impact on the back wall of the container. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The mounting and catching systems described in step 1.5 are the same systems used to secure the SSPPC.</li>
</ol>
3. Optical diagnostics
<ol>
	<li>Set up the laser, beam splitter, mirror, and photoreceivers by mounting the components on an optical breadboard, according to Figure 3. Orient the laser perpendicularly to the cannon, with the first beam traversing the interior of the pipe through the acrylic windows and the second passing just outside of the cannon exit.</li>
	<li>Power the photoreceivers and laser module by connecting them to a 15 V current limited power supply and laser power supply. Connect the photoreceivers to the two channels of the oscilloscope using BNC cables.</li>
	<li>Place black electrical tape over half of the photoreceiver sensor. The tape serves as a &#34;knife edge&#34; to create a sensitive shock detection setup. 
	NOTE: The sensitivity of the knife-edge detection can be further enhanced using a converging lens to focus the beam on the knife edge. The sensitivity can also be enhanced by increasing the distance the beam travels to the photoreceiver, resulting in a greater refractive displacement of the beam.</li>
	<li>Prior to setting the trigger level on the oscilloscope, pay special attention to avoid clipping, which can result from the sensitivity of the knife-edge setup. To avoid clipping, adjust the position of the beam on the knife edge so that the baseline voltage is approximately 50% of the maximum voltage. The maximum voltage is the voltage when the full beam is on the unobstructed detector.
	<ol>
		<li>Adjust the settings on the oscilloscope to collect 20 million data points. Set the data acquisition rate to 500 MHz by adjusting the horizontal scale knob. Turn the trigger knob to trip at a voltage slightly below the baseline voltage acquired from the photoreceiver. 
		&#8203;NOTE: The velocity of the ping-pong ball can be found through simple mathematics using the photoreceiver modules. The velocity is the diameter of the ping-pong ball divided by the time the beam is obstructed by the ball. A microprocessor is utilized to process the signal received from the interior photoreceiver module to automatically measure the velocity of the ball at the end of the cannon.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Automatic velocity measurements
<ol>
	<li>To utilize a microprocessor for automatic velocity measurements, convert the signal from the photoreceiver module to a 0-5 V pulse, as shown in Figure 5, using a comparator that triggers at approximately 10% of the baseline voltage. Connect the converted signal to port 7 of the microprocessor.</li>
	<li>Download &#34;JoVE_AutomaticVelocityDisplay.ino&#34; (Supplementary File 6), and upload it to the microprocessor.</li>
	<li>Connect the RA8875 display and driver board to the designated ports on the microprocessor.</li>
</ol>
5. Setup and firing of the ping-pong cannon
<ol>
	<li>Put on ear and eye protection before firing the cannon.</li>
	<li>Insert a ping-pong ball into the exit of the cannon. Blow lightly into the end of the cannon until the ball hits the vacuum fitting near the entrance of the pipe.</li>
	<li>Secure a 3 in x 3 in square of tape onto the flange at the exiting end of the cannon and a second square onto the acrylic cap. Seal the tape such that it adheres to the surface of the flange and cap. 
	NOTE: If there are any wrinkles or large bubbles, the tape needs to be discarded. If the tape does not sufficiently adhere to the surface, the vacuum can be lost, and the cannon can fire prematurely. If at any point the vacuum is lost, the needle valve connected to the vacuum pump can be opened to bring the system to equilibrium.</li>
	<li>Ensure the laser beam is centered on the knife edge, the trigger is properly set, and the catching container is secure.</li>
	<li>Turn on the vacuum pump to evacuate the pipe to a reduced absolute pressure of less than 2 Torr. Once a sufficient vacuum has been reached, puncture the tape at the entrance with a sharp object such as a broadhead or razor tip.</li>
	<li>After firing, turn off the vacuum pump. Remove the tape from the exit flange and the acrylic cap.</li>
</ol>
6. Setup and firing of the supersonic ping-pong cannon
<ol>
	<li>For safety, wear hearing and eye protection throughout the firing process.</li>
	<li>Cut sheets of 0.0005 in, 0.001 in, and 0.002 in polyester film that match the dimensions of the flange. These sheets can be cut by hand or, preferably, using a laser cutter. Use the supplementary file &#34;JoVE_MylarDiaphram_Cut.svg&#34; (Supplementary File 7) as an outline. 
	NOTE: For the purpose of this experiment, the cannon was fired with single sheets of 0.0005 in, 0.001 in, and 0.002 in polyester film, and the results are recorded in Figure 7. A template to laser-cut the polyester film can be found as an SVG file (Supplementary File 7).</li>
	<li>Ensure the valve from the air compressor to the driver pipe is closed. Prefill the air compressor to allow for faster filling of the driver pipe when the cannon is ready to be fired.</li>
	<li>Insert a ping-pong ball into the exit of the cannon. Blow lightly into the end of the cannon until the ball is stopped by the vacuum fitting near the entrance of the driven pipe.</li>
	<li>Secure a 3 in x 3 in square of tape onto the exiting end of the cannon. Seal the tape such that it adheres to the surface of the flange. 
	NOTE: If there are any wrinkles or large bubbles, the tape needs to be discarded. If the tape does not sufficiently adhere to the surface, the vacuum can be lost, and the cannon can fire prematurely. If the vacuum leaks or other complications arise, use the pressure release valve on the driver pipe and the needle valve on the vacuum pump to bring the system to equilibrium.</li>
	<li>Insert a precut thin polyester diaphragm between two rubber gaskets. Place the diaphragm and rubber gaskets between the driver and driven sections of the cannon. Tightly connect the two sections using 4 cam clamps.</li>
	<li>Ensure the laser beam is centered on the knife edge, the trigger is properly set, and the catching container is secure.</li>
	<li>Turn on the vacuum pump to evacuate the pipe to a reduced absolute pressure of less than 2 Torr. Release the pressure from the air compressor into the driver pipe. Allow the pressure to rise until the diaphragm bursts and the compressed air within the driver pipe rapidly fills the evacuated driven pipe.</li>
	<li>After the cannon fires, turn off the air compressor and the vacuum pump. Remove the burst polyester diaphragm and tape from the cannon.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Peterson, R. W., Pulford, B. N., Stein, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+ping-pong+cannon:+A+closer+look.">The ping-pong cannon: A closer look.</a> The Physics Teacher. 43 (1), 22-25 (2005).</li><li>Olson, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+shock+waves+in+expansion+tube+accelerators.">The role of shock waves in expansion tube accelerators.</a> American Journal of Physics. 74 (12), 1071-1076 (2006).</li><li>Cockman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+vacuum+bazooka.">Improved vacuum bazooka.</a> The Physics Teacher. 41 (4), 246-247 (2003).</li><li>Ayars, E., Buchholtz, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+the+vacuum+cannon.">Analysis of the vacuum cannon.</a> American Journal of Physics. 72 (7), 961-963 (2004).</li><li>Thuecks, D. J., Demas, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+the+effect+of+air-intake+aperture+size+in+the+ping-pong+ball+cannon.">Modeling the effect of air-intake aperture size in the ping-pong ball cannon.</a> American Journal of Physics. 87 (2), 136-140 (2019).</li><li>Liepmann, H. W., Roshko, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Elements of gas dynamics. , (1957).</li><li>Settles, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Schlieren and shadowgraph techniques. , (2001).</li><li>Geisert, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single+mirror+schlieren+optical+system.">A single mirror schlieren optical system.</a> American Journal of Physics. 52 (5), 467 (1984).</li><li>French, R. M., Gorrepati, V., Alcorta, E., Jackson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanics+of+a+ping-pong+ball+gun.">The mechanics of a ping-pong ball gun.</a> Experimental Techniques. 32 (1), 24-30 (2008).</li><li>French, M., Zehrung, C., Stratton, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+supersonic+ping-pong+gun.">A supersonic ping-pong gun.</a> arXiv. , (2013).</li><li>French, F., Choudhuri, R., Stratton, J., Zehrung, C., Huston, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+modular+supersonic+ping-pong+gun.">A modular supersonic ping-pong gun.</a> arXiv. , (2018).</li><li>Fredrick, C. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complementary+studies+on+supersonic+nozzle+flow:+heterodyne+interferometry,+high-speed+video+shadowgraphy,+and+numerical+simulation.">Complementary studies on supersonic nozzle flow: heterodyne interferometry, high-speed video shadowgraphy, and numerical simulation.</a> WIT Transactions on Modelling and Simulation. 59, 223-234 (2015).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

We have presented a method for the construction of a PPC and an SSPPC along with optical diagnostics for the measurement of ball velocities and for the characterization of shock propagation near the exit of the cannon. The standard PPC is constructed with a 2 m section of 1.5 in schedule 80 PVC pipe. The pipe is fitted with flanges at each end, quick-connect vacuum fittings, and acrylic windows near the exit for laser diagnostics. A detailed schematic of the PPC is shown in Figure 1. Prior t...

The PPC is a popular physics demonstration used to show the immense air pressure to which people are continually exposed1,2,3,4,5. The demonstration involves the placement of a ping-pong ball in a section of pipe that has an inner diameter that is approximately equal to the diameter of the ball. The pipe is sealed off on each end with tape and evacuated to an internal pressure of less than 2 Torr. The tape on one end of the pipe is punctured, which allows air to enter the cannon and causes the ball to experience peak accelerations of approximately 5,000 g&#39;s. The ball, which is accelerated by atmospheric pressure alone, exits the cannon at a speed of approximately 300 m/s after traveling 2 m.
Although the PPC is commonly operated as a simple demonstration of atmospheric pressure, it is also an apparatus that exhibits complex compressible flow physics, which has resulted in numerous open-ended student projects. The dynamics of the ball are influenced by secondary factors such as wall friction, the leakage of air around the ball, and the formation of shock waves by the accelerating ball. The substantial acceleration of the ball introduces a large-amplitude compression wave that travels down the tube in front of the ball. These compressions travel faster than the local sound speed, resulting in a steepening of the compression wave and the eventual formation of a shock wave6. Previous work has studied the rapid buildup of pressure at the exit of the tube due to the reflections of the shock wave between the ball and the taped exit of the tube and the resulting detachment of the tape prior to the exit of the ball2. High-speed video using a single-mirror schlieren imaging technique has revealed the response of the tape to the reflecting shock waves and the eventual detachment of the tape at the exit of the PPC7,8 (Video 1). Thus, the PPC serves as both a simple demonstration of air pressure that intrigues audiences of all ages and as a device exhibiting complex fluid physics, which can be studied in great detail in a laboratory setting.
With the standard PPC, the ping-pong ball speeds are limited by the speed of sound. This basic version of the PPC is covered in the scope of this paper, along with a modified cannon used to boost the ball to supersonic speeds. In previous work by French et al., supersonic ping-pong ball speeds have been achieved by utilizing pressure-driven flow through a converging-diverging nozzle9,10,11. The SSPPC presented here utilizes a pressurized (driver) pipe to provide a larger pressure differential on the ping-pong ball than is provided by atmospheric pressure alone. A thin polyester diaphragm is utilized to separate the driver pipe from the evacuated (driven) pipe containing the ball. This diaphragm ruptures under sufficient gage pressure (generally 5-70 psi, depending on the diaphragm thickness), thus accelerating the ping-pong ball to speeds up to Mach 1.4. The supersonic ping-pong ball produces a standing shock wave, as can be seen using high-speed shadowgraph imaging techniques7,12 (Video 2).
A low-power (class II) HeNe laser is used to carry out optical diagnostic studies on the performance of the cannon. The HeNe laser beam is split into two paths, with one path traversing through a set of acrylic windows near the exit of the cannon and the second path traversing just past the exit of the cannon. Each path terminates on a photoreceiver, and the signal is displayed on a dual-channel oscilloscope. The oscilloscope trace recorded during the firing of the cannon reveals information about both the speed of the accelerated ping-pong ball and the compressible flow and shock waves that precede the exit of the ball from the cannon. The speed of the 40 mm diameter ping-pong ball at each beam location is directly related to the time the ball blocks the beam. A sensitive &#34;knife-edge&#34; shock detection setup is achieved by covering half of the detector with a piece of black electrical tape and positioning the edge of the tape at the center of the beam2. With this setup, slight deflections of the He-Ne laser beam, produced by the compressible flow-induced index of refraction gradients, are clearly visible as voltage spikes on the oscilloscope trace. The shock waves traveling toward the cannon exit and the reflected shock waves deflect the beam in opposite directions and are, therefore, identified by either a positive or negative voltage spike.
Here, we provide instructions for the construction and utilization of an optimized PPC and SSPPC, as well as optical diagnostic techniques (Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3). The optical diagnostic techniques and measurements have been developed through previous years of study1,2.

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			<td>New Focus</td>
			<td>0901</td>
			<td>Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>2&#34; x 6&#34; Plank</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>BTR KD-HT S</td>
			<td>Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>5.0&#34; 40-pin 800 x 480 TFT Display</td>
			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td>1680</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>1791T3</td>
			<td>0&#8211;20 Torr | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>C2002</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>76455A21</td>
			<td>Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>THORLABS</td>
			<td>BB05-E02</td>
			<td>400&#8211;750 nm, &#216;1/2&#34; | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5133A15</td>
			<td>3&#34; opening, 2&#34; reach | Quantity: 6</td>
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			<td>Rockler</td>
			<td>58252</td>
			<td>Size: 5/16&#34;-18 | Quantity: 2 (2 pack)</td>
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			<td>Digital Pressure Gauge</td>
			<td>Omega Engineering, Inc.</td>
			<td>DPG104S</td>
			<td>0&#8211;100 Psi Absolute Pressure, With Output and Alarms | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>Digital Pressure Gauge</td>
			<td>Omega Engineering, Inc.</td>
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			<td>0&#8211;100 Psi Absolute Pressure, With Output and Alarms | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>Draw Latch</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
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			<td>Size: 3 3/4&#34; x 7/8&#34; | Quantity: 4</td>
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			<td>Adafruit</td>
			<td>1590</td>
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			<td>Laser Power Supply</td>
			<td>Uniphase</td>
			<td>1201-1</td>
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			<td>THORLABS</td>
			<td>FMP05</td>
			<td>Fixed &#216;1/2&#34;, 8&#8211;32 Tap | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>8567K102</td>
			<td>10&#39; x 0.0005&#34; x 27&#34; | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>Moisture-Resistant Polyester Film</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
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			<td>10&#39; x 0.001&#34; x 40&#34; | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>Moisture-Resistant Polyester Film</td>
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			<td>8567K22</td>
			<td>10&#39; x 0.002&#34; x 40&#34; | Quantity: 1</td>
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			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
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			<td>Size: 1&#34; x 1/2&#34; | Quantity: 4</td>
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			<td>Robbins Aviation Inc</td>
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			<td>Size: 10 mm | Quantity: 2</td>
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high-speed optical diagnostics of a supersonic ping-pong cannon

The traditional ping-pong cannon (PPC) is an educational apparatus that launches a ping-pong ball down an evacuated pipe to nearly sonic speeds using atmospheric pressure alone. The SSPPC, an augmented version of the PPC, achieves supersonic speeds by accelerating the ball with greater than atmospheric pressure. We provide instructions for the construction and utilization of an optimized PPC and SSPPC.
Optical diagnostics are implemented for the purpose of investigating the cannon dynamics. A HeNe laser that is sent through two acrylic windows near the exit of the pipe is terminated on a photoreceiver sensor. A microprocessor measures the time that the beam is obstructed by the ping-pong ball to automatically calculate the ball's velocity. The results are immediately presented on an LCD display. 
An optical knife-edge setup provides a highly sensitive means of detecting shock waves by cutting off a fraction of the HeNe beam at the sensor. Shock waves cause refraction-induced deflections of the beam, which are observed as small voltage spikes in the electrical signal from the photoreceiver. 
The methods presented are highly reproducible and offer the opportunity for further investigation in a laboratory setting.

Here, we provide instructions for the construction and utilization of a PPC and an SSPPC, along with the implementation of the optical diagnostics for shock characterization and velocity measurements. Representative experimental results are also provided. The completed systems of the PPC and SSPPC, along with necessary accessories, are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The SSPPC is an augmented version of the PPC, where a driving, pressurized section of pipe is co...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about High-Speed Optical Diagnostics of a Supersonic Ping-Pong Cannon at JoVE.com

High-Speed Optical Diagnostics of a Supersonic Ping-Pong Cannon

We describe a method for the construction of a supersonic ping-pong cannon (SSPPC) along with optical diagnostic techniques for the measurement of ball velocities and the characterization of propagating shock waves during the firing of the cannon.

The traditional ping-pong cannon (PPC) is an educational apparatus that launches a ping-pong ball down an evacuated pipe to nearly sonic speeds using ...

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923 Views.  Bethel University. We describe a method for the construction of a supersonic ping-pong cannon (SSPPC) along with optical diagnostic techniques for the measurement of ball velocities and the characterization of propagating shock waves during the firing of the cannon.

Video: High-Speed Optical Diagnostics of a Supersonic Ping-Pong Cannon

Construction and Testing of Coin Cells of Lithium Ion Batteries

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime. Lithium ion batteries have also been considered to be used in electric and hybrid vehicles1 or even electrical grid stabilization systems2. All these applications simulate a dramatic increase in the research and development of battery materials3-7, including new materials3,8, doping9, nanostructuring10-13, coatings or surface modifications14-17 and novel binders18. Consequently, an increasing number of physicists, chemists and materials scientists have recently ventured into this area. Coin cells are widely used in research laboratories to test new battery materials; even for the research and development that target large-scale and high-power applications, small coin cells are often used to test the capacities and rate capabilities of new materials in the initial stage. 
 In 2010, we started a National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored research project to investigate the surface adsorption and disordering in battery materials (grant no. DMR-1006515). In the initial stage of this project, we have struggled to learn the techniques of assembling and testing coin cells, which cannot be achieved without numerous help of other researchers in other universities (through frequent calls, email exchanges and two site visits). Thus, we feel that it is beneficial to document, by both text and video, a protocol of assembling and testing a coin cell, which will help other new researchers in this field. This effort represents the "Broader Impact" activities of our NSF project, and it will also help to educate and inspire students.
In this video article, we document a protocol to assemble a CR2032 coin cell with a LiCoO2 working electrode, a Li counter electrode, and (the mostly commonly used) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. To ensure new learners to readily repeat the protocol, we keep the protocol as specific and explicit as we can. However, it is important to note that in specific research and development work, many parameters adopted here can be varied. First, one can make coin cells of different sizes and test the working electrode against a counter electrode other than Li. Second, the amounts of C black and binder added into the working electrodes are often varied to suit the particular purpose of research; for example, large amounts of C black or even inert powder were added to the working electrode to test the "intrinsic" performance of cathode materials14. Third, better binders (other than PVDF) have also developed and used18. Finally, other types of electrolytes (instead of LiPF6) can also be used; in fact, certain high-voltage electrode materials will require the uses of special electrolytes7.

A protocol to construct and test coin cells of lithium ion batteries is described. The specific procedures of making a working electrode, preparing a counter electrode, assembling a cell inside a glovebox and testing the cell are presented.

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime.  Lithium ion ...

Fabricating Metamaterials Using the Fiber Drawing Method

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe their electromagnetic properties to the structure of their constituents, instead of the atoms that compose them. For example, sub-wavelength metal wires can be arranged to possess an effective electric permittivity that is either positive or negative at a given frequency, in contrast to the metals themselves 2. This unprecedented control over the behaviour of light can potentially lead to a number of novel devices, such as invisibility cloaks 3, negative refractive index materials 4, and lenses that resolve objects below the diffraction limit 5. However, metamaterials operating at optical, mid-infrared and terahertz frequencies are conventionally made using nano- and micro-fabrication techniques that are expensive and produce samples that are at most a few centimetres in size 6-7. Here we present a fabrication method to produce hundreds of meters of metal wire metamaterials in fiber form, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response 8. We combine the stack-and-draw technique used to produce microstructured polymer optical fiber 9 with the Taylor-wire process 10, using indium wires inside polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) tubes. PMMA is chosen because it is an easy to handle, drawable dielectric with suitable optical properties in the terahertz region; indium because it has a melting temperature of 156.6 &deg;C which is appropriate for codrawing with PMMA. We include an indium wire of 1 mm diameter and 99.99% purity in a PMMA tube with 1 mm inner diameter (ID) and 12 mm outside diameter (OD) which is sealed at one end. The tube is evacuated and drawn down to an outer diameter of 1.2 mm. The resulting fiber is then cut into smaller pieces, and stacked into a larger PMMA tube. This stack is sealed at one end and fed into a furnace while being rapidly drawn, reducing the diameter of the structure by a factor of 10, and increasing the length by a factor of 100. Such fibers possess features on the micro- and nano- scale, are inherently flexible, mass-producible, and can be woven to exhibit electromagnetic properties that are not found in nature. They represent a promising platform for a number of novel devices from terahertz to optical frequencies, such as invisible fibers, woven negative refractive index cloths, and super-resolving lenses.

Metamaterials at terahertz frequencies offer unique opportunities, but are challenging to fabricate in bulk. We adapt the fabrication procedure for microstructured polymer optical fibers to inexpensively fabricate metamaterials potentially on an industrial scale. We produce polymethylmethacrylate fibers containing ~10 &mu;m diameter indium wires separated by ~100 &mu;m, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response.

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe ...

Optical Trapping of Nanoparticles

Optical trapping is a technique for immobilizing and manipulating small objects in a gentle way using light, and it has been widely applied in trapping and manipulating small biological particles. Ashkin and co-workers first demonstrated optical tweezers using a single focused beam1. The single beam trap can be described accurately using the perturbative gradient force formulation in the case of small Rayleigh regime particles1. In the perturbative regime, the optical power required for trapping a particle scales as the inverse fourth power of the particle size. High optical powers can damage dielectric particles and cause heating. For instance, trapped latex spheres of 109 nm in diameter were destroyed by a 15 mW beam in 25 sec1, which has serious implications for biological matter2,3.
A self-induced back-action (SIBA) optical trapping was proposed to trap 50 nm polystyrene spheres in the non-perturbative regime4. In a non-perturbative regime, even a small particle with little permittivity contrast to the background can influence significantly the ambient electromagnetic field and induce a large optical force. As a particle enters an illuminated aperture, light transmission increases dramatically because of dielectric loading. If the particle attempts to leave the aperture, decreased transmission causes a change in momentum outwards from the hole and, by Newton's Third Law, results in a force on the particle inwards into the hole, trapping the particle. The light transmission can be monitored; hence, the trap can become a sensor. The SIBA trapping technique can be further improved by using a double-nanohole structure.
The double-nanohole structure has been shown to give a strong local field enhancement5,6. Between the two sharp tips of the double-nanohole, a small particle can cause a large change in optical transmission, thereby inducing a large optical force. As a result, smaller nanoparticles can be trapped, such as 12 nm silicate spheres7 and 3.4 nm hydrodynamic radius bovine serum albumin proteins8. In this work, the experimental configuration used for nanoparticle trapping is outlined. First, we detail the assembly of the trapping setup which is based on a Thorlabs Optical Tweezer Kit. Next, we explain the nanofabrication procedure of the double-nanohole in a metal film, the fabrication of the microfluidic chamber and the sample preparation. Finally, we detail the data acquisition procedure and provide typical results for trapping 20 nm polystyrene nanospheres.

The following setup approach details low power optical trapping of dielectric nanoparticles using a double-nanohole in metal film.

Optical trapping is a technique for immobilizing and manipulating small objects in a gentle way using light, and it has been widely applied in trapping ...

High-resolution, High-speed, Three-dimensional Video Imaging with Digital Fringe Projection Techniques

Digital fringe projection (DFP) techniques provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;Like the human eyes and brain, DFP uses triangulation between matching points in two views of the same scene at different angles to compute depth.&#160;However, unlike a stereo-based method, DFP uses a digital video projector to replace one of the cameras1. The projector rapidly projects a known sinusoidal pattern onto the subject, and the surface of the subject distorts these patterns in the camera&#8217;s field of view. Three distorted patterns (fringe images) from the camera can be used to compute the depth using triangulation.
Unlike other 3D measurement methods, DFP techniques lead to systems that tend to be faster, lower in equipment cost, more flexible, and easier to develop.&#160;DFP systems can also achieve the same measurement resolution as the camera.&#160;For this reason, DFP and other digital structured light techniques have recently been the focus of intense research (as summarized in1-5). Taking advantage of DFP, the graphics processing unit, and optimized algorithms, we have developed a system capable of 30&#160;Hz 3D video data acquisition, reconstruction, and display for over 300,000 measurement points per frame6,7.&#160;Binary defocusing DFP methods can achieve even greater speeds8.
Diverse applications can benefit from DFP techniques. Our collaborators have used our systems for facial function analysis9, facial animation10, cardiac mechanics studies11, and fluid surface measurements, but many other potential applications exist.&#160;This video will teach the fundamentals of DFP techniques and illustrate the design and operation of a binary defocusing DFP system.

This video describes the fundamentals of digital fringe projection techniques, which provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;It also demonstrates the design and operation of a high-speed binary defocusing system based on these techniques.

Digital fringe projection (DFP) techniques provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;Like the human eyes and brain, DFP uses ...

Construction of a High Resolution Microscope with Conventional and Holographic Optical Trapping Capabilities

High resolution microscope systems with optical traps allow for precise manipulation of various refractive objects, such as dielectric beads 1 or cellular organelles 2,3, as well as for high spatial and temporal resolution readout of their position relative to the center of the trap. The system described herein has one such "traditional" trap operating at 980 nm. It additionally provides a second optical trapping system that uses a commercially available holographic package to simultaneously create and manipulate complex trapping patterns in the field of view of the microscope 4,5 at a wavelength of 1,064 nm. The combination of the two systems allows for the manipulation of multiple refractive objects at the same time while simultaneously conducting high speed and high resolution measurements of motion and force production at nanometer and piconewton scale.

The system described herein employs a traditional optical trap as well as an independent holographic optical trapping line, capable of creating and manipulating multiple traps. This allows for the creation of complex geometric arrangements of refractive particles while also permitting simultaneous high-speed, high-resolution measurements of the activity of biological enzymes.

High resolution microscope systems with optical traps allow for precise manipulation of various refractive objects, such as dielectric beads 1 or cellular ...

High-speed Particle Image Velocimetry Near Surfaces

Multi-dimensional and transient flows play a key role in many areas of science, engineering, and health sciences but are often not well understood. The complex nature of these flows may be studied using particle image velocimetry (PIV), a laser-based imaging technique for optically accessible flows. Though many forms of PIV exist that extend the technique beyond the original planar two-component velocity measurement capabilities, the basic PIV system consists of a light source (laser), a camera, tracer particles, and analysis algorithms. The imaging and recording parameters, the light source, and the algorithms are adjusted to optimize the recording for the flow of interest and obtain valid velocity data. 
Common PIV investigations measure two-component velocities in a plane at a few frames per second. However, recent developments in instrumentation have facilitated high-frame rate (&gt; 1 kHz) measurements capable of resolving transient flows with high temporal resolution. Therefore, high-frame rate measurements have enabled investigations on the evolution of the structure and dynamics of highly transient flows. These investigations play a critical role in understanding the fundamental physics of complex flows.
A detailed description for performing high-resolution, high-speed planar PIV to study a transient flow near the surface of a flat plate is presented here. Details for adjusting the parameter constraints such as image and recording properties, the laser sheet properties, and processing algorithms to adapt PIV for any flow of interest are included.

A procedure for studying transient flows near boundaries using high-resolution, high-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV) is described here. PIV is a non-intrusive measurement technique applicable to any optically accessible flow by optimizing several parameter constraints such as the image and recording properties, the laser sheet properties, and analysis algorithms.

Multi-dimensional and transient flows play a key role in many areas of science, engineering, and health sciences but are often not well understood. The ...

Visualization of High Speed Liquid Jet Impaction on a Moving Surface

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds between 0 and 25 m/sec) and a spinning disk device (for examining surface speeds between 15 and 100 m/sec). The air cannon linear traverse is a pneumatic energy-powered system that is designed to accelerate a metal rail surface mounted on top of a wooden projectile. A pressurized cylinder fitted with a solenoid valve rapidly releases pressurized air into the barrel, forcing the projectile down the cannon barrel. The projectile travels beneath a spray nozzle, which impinges a liquid jet onto its metal upper surface, and the projectile then hits a stopping mechanism. A camera records the jet impingement, and a pressure transducer records the spray nozzle backpressure. The spinning disk set-up consists of a steel disk that reaches speeds of 500 to 3,000 rpm via a variable frequency drive (VFD) motor. A spray system similar to that of the air cannon generates a liquid jet that impinges onto the spinning disc, and cameras placed at several optical access points record the jet impingement. Video recordings of jet impingement processes are recorded and examined to determine whether the outcome of impingement is splash, splatter, or deposition. The apparatuses are the first that involve the high speed impingement of low-Reynolds-number liquid jets on high speed moving surfaces. In addition to its rail industry applications, the described technique may be used for technical and industrial purposes such as steelmaking and may be relevant to high-speed 3D printing.

Two experimental devices for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device and a spinning disk device. The apparatuses are used to determine optimal approaches to the application of liquid friction modifier (LFM) onto rail tracks for top-of-rail friction control.

Two apparatuses for examining liquid jet impingement on a high-speed moving surface are described: an air cannon device (for examining surface speeds ...

Fabrication and Operation of a Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological and physical sciences over the past few decades. The progress made in this field invites further study of even smaller systems and at a larger scale, with tools that could be distributed more easily and made more widely available. Unfortunately, the fundamental laws of diffraction limit the minimum size of the focal spot of a laser beam, which makes particles smaller than a half-wavelength in diameter hard to trap and generally prevents an operator from discriminating between particles which are closer together than one half-wavelength. This precludes the optical manipulation of many closely-spaced nanoparticles and&#160;limits the&#160;resolution of optical-mechanical systems. Furthermore, manipulation using focused beams requires beam-forming or steering optics, which can be very bulky and expensive. To address these limitations in the system scalability of conventional optical trapping our lab has devised an alternative technique which utilizes near-field optics to move particles across a chip. Instead of focusing laser beams in the far-field, the optical near field of plasmonic resonators produces the necessary local optical intensity enhancement to overcome the restrictions of diffraction and manipulate particles at higher resolution. Closely-spaced resonators produce strong optical traps which can be addressed to mediate the hand-off of particles from one to the next in a conveyor-belt-like fashion. Here, we describe how to design and produce a conveyor belt using a gold surface patterned with plasmonic C-shaped resonators and how to operate it with polarized laser light to achieve super-resolution nanoparticle manipulation and transport. The nano-optical conveyor belt chip can be produced using lithography techniques and easily packaged and distributed.

The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic resonators.

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological ...

Writing Bragg Gratings in Multicore Fibers

Fiber Bragg gratings in multicore fibers can be used as compact and robust filters in astronomical and other research and commercial applications. Strong suppression at a single wavelength requires that all cores have matching transmission profiles. These gratings cannot be inscribed using the same method as for single-core fibers because the curved surface of the cladding acts as a lens, focusing the incoming UV laser beam and causing variations in exposure between cores. Therefore we use an additional optical element to ensure that the beam shape does not change while passing through the cross-section of the multicore fiber. This consists of a glass capillary tube which has been polished flat on one side, which is then placed over the section of the fiber to be inscribed. The laser beam enters the fiber through the flat surface of the capillary tube and hence maintains its original dimensions. This paper demonstrates the improvements in core-to-core uniformity for a 7-core fiber using this method. The technique can be generalized to larger multicore fibers.

We describe a technique for inscribing identical fiber Bragg gratings into each core of a multicore fiber. This is achieved by introducing an additional surface into the optical path to mitigate lensing by the curved surface of the fiber cladding.

Fiber Bragg gratings in multicore fibers can be used as compact and robust filters in astronomical and other research and commercial applications. Strong ...

Compact Lens-less Digital Holographic Microscope for MEMS Inspection and Characterization

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and automotive. However, effective inspection and characterization metrology systems are needed to ensure the functional reliability of MEMS. This study presents a system based on digital holography as a tool for MEMS metrology. Digital holography has gained increasing attention in the past 20 years. With the fast development and decreasing cost of sensor arrays, resolution of such systems has increased broadening potential applications. Thus, it has attracted attention from both research and industry sides as a potential reliable tool for industrial metrology. Indeed, by recording the interference pattern between an object beam (which contains sample height information) and a reference beam on a CCD camera, one can retrieve the quantitative phase information of an object. However, most of digital holographic systems are bulky and thus not easy to implement on industry production lines. The novelty of the system presented is that it is lens-less and thus very compact. In this study, it is shown that the Compact Digital Holographic Microscope (CDHM) can be used to evaluate several characteristics typically consider as criteria in MEMS inspections. The surface profiles of MEMS in both static and dynamic conditions are presented. Comparison with AFM is investigated to validate the accuracy of the CDHM.

We present a compact reflection digital holographic system (CDHM) for inspection and characterization of MEMS devices. A lens-less design using a diverging input wave providing natural geometrical magnification is demonstrated. Both static and dynamic studies are presented.

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and ...