The authors would like to acknowledge the engineering team at SonoVol Inc. for their technical support. This work was partially sponsored by the American Heart Association Collaborative Sciences Award (18CSA34080277), to J. Yao and W. Yang; The United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants R21EB027981, R21 EB027304, RF1 NS115581 (BRAIN Initiative), R01 NS111039, R01 EB028143; The United States National Science Foundation (NSF) CAREER award 2144788; the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Grant (2020-226178), to J. Yao; and NIH grants R21NS127163 and R01NS099590 to W. Yang.

Non-Invasive Integrated PAUSAT Whole-Brain Imaging of Ischemic Stroke

<ol>
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T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Russell+and+Burch's+3Rs+then+and+now:+the+need+for+clarity+in+definition+and+purpose.">Russell and Burch's 3Rs then and now: the need for clarity in definition and purpose.</a> Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. 54 (2), 120-132 (2015).</li><li>Hochrainer, K., Yang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stroke+proteomics:+from+discovery+to+diagnostic+and+therapeutic+applications.">Stroke proteomics: from discovery to diagnostic and therapeutic applications.</a> Circulation Research. 130 (8), 1145-1166 (2022).</li><li>Wang, L. V., Yao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+practical+guide+to+photoacoustic+tomography+in+the+life+sciences.">A practical guide to photoacoustic tomography in the life sciences.</a> Nature Methods. 13 (8), 627-638 (2016).</li><li>Aldrich, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Basic+physics+of+ultrasound+imaging.">Basic physics of ultrasound imaging.</a> Critical Care Medicine. 35 (5), S131-S137 (2007).</li><li>Jacques, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+properties+of+biological+tissues:+a+review.">Optical properties of biological tissues: a review.</a> Physics in Medicine and Biology. 58 (11), R37-R61 (2013).</li><li>Li, M., Tang, Y., Yao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photoacoustic+tomography+of+blood+oxygenation:+a+mini+review.">Photoacoustic tomography of blood oxygenation: a mini review.</a> Photoacoustics. 10, 65-73 (2018).</li><li>Menozzi, L., Yang, W., Feng, W., Yao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sound+out+the+impaired+perfusion:+Photoacoustic+imaging+in+preclinical+ischemic+stroke.">Sound out the impaired perfusion: Photoacoustic imaging in preclinical ischemic stroke.</a> Frontiers in Neuroscience. 16, 1055552 (2022).</li><li>Gessner, R. C., Frederick, C. B., Foster, F. S., Dayton, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+angiography:+a+new+imaging+modality+for+assessing+microvasculature+architecture.">Acoustic angiography: a new imaging modality for assessing microvasculature architecture.</a> International Journal of Biomedical Imaging. 2013, 936593 (2013).</li><li>Dayton, P. A., Rychak, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+ultrasound+imaging+using+microbubble+contrast+agents.">Molecular ultrasound imaging using microbubble contrast agents.</a> Frontiers in Bioscience. 12, 5124-5142 (2007).</li><li>Isayama, K., Pitts, L. H., Nishimura, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+2,+3,+5-triphenyitetrazolium+chloride+staining+to+delineate+rat+brain+infarcts.">Evaluation of 2, 3, 5-triphenyitetrazolium chloride staining to delineate rat brain infarcts.</a> Stroke. 22 (11), 1394-1398 (1991).</li><li>Ruan, J., Yao, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+tests+in+rodent+models+of+stroke.">Behavioral tests in rodent models of stroke.</a> Brain Hemorrhages. 1 (4), 171-184 (2020).</li><li>Parthasarathy, A. B., Kazmi, S. M. S., Dunn, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+imaging+of+ischemic+stroke+through+thinned+skull+in+mice+with+Multi+Exposure+Speckle+Imaging.">Quantitative imaging of ischemic stroke through thinned skull in mice with Multi Exposure Speckle Imaging.</a> Biomedical Optics Express. 1 (1), 246-259 (2010).</li><li>Hingot, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+ultrafast+ultrasound+imaging+of+cerebral+perfusion+correlates+with+ischemic+stroke+outcomes+and+responses+to+treatment+in+mice.">Early ultrafast ultrasound imaging of cerebral perfusion correlates with ischemic stroke outcomes and responses to treatment in mice.</a> Theranostics. 10 (17), 7480-7491 (2020).</li><li>Menozzi, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+non-invasive+brain+imaging+of+ischemic+stroke+by+integrated+photoacoustic,+ultrasound+and+angiographic+tomography+(PAUSAT).">Three-dimensional non-invasive brain imaging of ischemic stroke by integrated photoacoustic, ultrasound and angiographic tomography (PAUSAT).</a> Photoacoustics. 29, 100444 (2022).</li><li>Llovera, G., Roth, S., Plesnila, N., Veltkamp, R., Liesz, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+stroke+in+mice:+permanent+coagulation+of+the+distal+middle+cerebral+artery.">Modeling stroke in mice: permanent coagulation of the distal middle cerebral artery.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (89), e51729 (2014).</li><li>Trotman-Lucas, M., Kelly, M. E., Janus, J., Fern, R., Gibson, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+alternative+surgical+approach+reduces+variability+following+filament+induction+of+experimental+stroke+in+mice.">An alternative surgical approach reduces variability following filament induction of experimental stroke in mice.</a> Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms. 10 (7), 931-938 (2017).</li><li>Labat-Gest, V., Tomasi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photothrombotic+ischemia:+a+minimally+invasive+and+reproducible+photochemical+cortical+lesion+model+for+mouse+stroke+studies.">Photothrombotic ischemia: a minimally invasive and reproducible photochemical cortical lesion model for mouse stroke studies.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (76), e50370 (2013).</li><li>Matsumoto, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualising+peripheral+arterioles+and+venules+through+high-resolution+and+large-area+photoacoustic+imaging.">Visualising peripheral arterioles and venules through high-resolution and large-area photoacoustic imaging.</a> Scientific Reports. 8 (1), 14930 (2018).</li><li>Xu, Y., Wang, L. V., Ambartsoumian, G., Kuchment, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reconstructions+in+limited-view+thermoacoustic+tomography.">Reconstructions in limited-view thermoacoustic tomography.</a> Medical Physics. 31 (4), 724-733 (2004).</li><li>Yal Tang, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-fidelity+deep+functional+photoacoustic+tomography+enhanced+by+virtual+point+sources.">High-fidelity deep functional photoacoustic tomography enhanced by virtual point sources.</a> Photoacoustics. 29, 100450 (2023).</li><li>Zheng, W., Huang, C., Zhang, H., Xia, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Slit-based+photoacoustic+tomography+with+co-planar+light+illumination+and+acoustic+detection+for+high-resolution+vascular+imaging+in+human+using+a+linear+transducer+array.">Slit-based photoacoustic tomography with co-planar light illumination and acoustic detection for high-resolution vascular imaging in human using a linear transducer array.</a> Biomedical Engineering Letters. 12 (2), 125-133 (2022).</li><li>Wang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Slit-enabled+linear-array+photoacoustic+tomography+with+near+isotropic+spatial+resolution+in+three+dimensions.">Slit-enabled linear-array photoacoustic tomography with near isotropic spatial resolution in three dimensions.</a> Optics Letters. 41 (1), 127-130 (2016).</li><li>Vu, T., Li, M., Humayun, H., Zhou, Y., Yao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+generative+adversarial+network+for+artifact+removal+in+photoacoustic+computed+tomography+with+a+linear-array+transducer.">A generative adversarial network for artifact removal in photoacoustic computed tomography with a linear-array transducer.</a> Experimental Biology and Medicine. 245 (7), 597-605 (2020).</li><li>Zhang, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep-E:+A+fully-dense+neural+network+for+improving+the+elevation+resolution+in+linear-array-based+photoacoustic+tomography.">Deep-E: A fully-dense neural network for improving the elevation resolution in linear-array-based photoacoustic tomography.</a> IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 41 (5), 1279-1288 (2022).</li><li>Hauptmann, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Model-based+learning+for+accelerated,+limited-view+3-D+photoacoustic+tomography.">Model-based learning for accelerated, limited-view 3-D photoacoustic tomography.</a> IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 37 (6), 1382-1393 (2018).</li><li>Li, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+deep-tissue+functional+and+molecular+imaging+by+integrated+photoacoustic,+ultrasound,+and+angiographic+tomography+(PAUSAT).">Three-dimensional deep-tissue functional and molecular imaging by integrated photoacoustic, ultrasound, and angiographic tomography (PAUSAT).</a> IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 41 (10), 2704-2714 (2022).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflict of interest in this work.

There are a few vital aspects of this method that, if done incorrectly, can lead to significantly decreased image quality and quantitative analysis. The most commonly occurring result of user-error in PAUSAT images is either a lack of signal or very low signal strength, both of which can occur for a variety of reasons. One such reason is a problem with the acoustic coupling. Large air bubbles in the water surrounding the mouse&#39;s head during imaging can often block the ultrasound from travelling to or from the transdu...

Blood transports oxygen (via the hemoglobin protein) and other important nutrients to tissues in our bodies. When the flow of blood through tissues is interrupted (ischemia), severe damage to the tissues can occur, the most immediate effects of which are due to a lack of oxygen (hypoxia). Ischemic stroke is the result of interrupted blood flow to a certain region of the brain. The brain damage resulting from an ischemic stroke can occur within minutes of a vessel blockage, and can often have debilitating and lasting effects1,2. A highly valuable strategy to evaluate the physiopathology after ischemic stroke and identify and test new treatments is the use of small-animal models in the lab. Treatments discovered in the lab aim to be translated to clinical use and improve patients&#39; lives. However, the use of animals in biomedical research needs to be carefully evaluated according to Russell and Burch&#8217;s 3Rs principles: replacement, reduction, and refinement3. The objective of the reduction component is to reduce the number of animals without compromising data collection. With this in mind, being able to longitudinally evaluate the lesion evolution via noninvasive imaging allows a great advantage in reducing the number of animals required, as well as maximizing the information obtained from each animal4.
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a hybrid imaging modality that combines optical absorption contrast with ultrasound imaging spatial resolution5. The imaging mechanism of PAT is as follows. An excitation laser pulse is illuminated on the target being imaged. Assuming the target absorbs light at the wavelength of the excitation laser, it will increase in temperature. This quick increase in temperature results in a thermoelastic expansion of the target. The expansion causes an ultrasound wave to propagate out from the target. By detecting the ultrasound wave at many positions, the time required for the wave to propagate from the target to the detectors can be used to create an image through a reconstruction algorithm. The ability of PAT to detect optical absorption in deep tissue regions differentiates PAT from ultrasound imaging, which detects boundaries of differing acoustic impedances of tissues5. In the visible and near-infrared spectra, the primary highly absorbing biomolecules that are abundant in organisms are hemoglobin, lipids, melanin, and water7. Of particular interest in the study of stroke is hemoglobin. Since oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin have different optical absorption spectra, PAT can be used with multiple excitation laser wavelengths to determine the relative concentration of the two states of the protein. This allows the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (sO2), or blood oxygenation, to be quantified in and outside of the infarct region8,9. This is an important measure in ischemic stroke, as it can indicate the level of oxygen in the damaged brain tissue following ischemia.
Acoustic angiography (AA) is a contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging method that is particularly useful for imaging the morphology of vasculature in vivo10. The method relies on the use of a dual-element wobbler transducer (a low frequency element and a high frequency element) in conjunction with microbubbles injected into the circulatory system of the imaging subject. The low-frequency element of the transducer is used for transmitting at the resonant frequency of the microbubbles (e.g., 2 MHz), while the high-frequency element is used to receive the super harmonic signals of the microbubbles (e.g., 26&#160;MHz). When excited at a resonant frequency, the microbubbles have a strong nonlinear response, resulting in the production of super harmonic signals that surrounding body tissues do not produce11. By receiving with a high-frequency element, this ensures that only the microbubble signals are detected. Since the microbubbles are confined to the blood vessels, the result is an angiographic image of blood vessel morphology. AA is a powerful method for imaging ischemic stroke, as the microbubbles that flow through the circulatory system are not be able to flow through blocked vessels. This allows AA to detect regions of the brain that are not perfused due to ischemic stroke, which indicates the infarct region.
Preclinical ischemic stroke research generally relies on the use of histology and behavioral testing to assess the location and severity of the stroke. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining is a common histological analysis used to determine the stroke infarct volume. However, it can only be used at an endpoint, since it requires the animal to be euthanized12. Behavioral tests can be used to determine motor function impairment at multiple time points, but they cannot provide quantitative anatomical or physiological values13. Biomedical imaging provides a more quantitative approach to studying the effects of ischemic stroke noninvasively and longitudinally9,14,15. However, existing imaging technologies (such as small-animal magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) can come at a high cost, be unable to provide concurrent structural and functional information, or have limited penetration depth (as most optical imaging techniques).
Here, we combine photoacoustic, ultrasound, and angiographic tomography (PAUSAT; see system diagram in Figure 1), which allows for complementary structural and functional information of blood perfusion and oxygenation following ischemic stroke16. These are two important aspects in assessing the severity of injury and monitoring the recovery or response to treatments. Using these integrated imaging methods can increase the amount of information obtained by each animal, reducing the number of animals required and providing more information in the study of potential treatments for ischemic stroke.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65319/65319fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: PAUSAT diagram. (A) Complete schematic of the PAUSAT system, including the laser and OPO used for PAT. (B) Inside view of the PAUSAT system, including two ultrasound transducers. The dual-element wobbler transducer is used for both B-mode ultrasound and AA, and the linear-array transducer is used for PAT. Both transducers are mounted on the same 2D motorized stage, allowing for scanning to generate volumetric data. This figure has been modified from16. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65319/65319fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>20 GA catheter</td>
			<td>BD Insyte Autoguard Winged</td>
			<td>381534</td>
			<td>For mouse intubation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8877</td>
			<td>Necessary for TTC-staining brain for validation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>532nm Laser</td>
			<td>Quantel</td>
			<td>Q-smart 850</td>
			<td>Laser used to pump the OPO for PAT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic Ventilator Rovent Jr.</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific</td>
			<td>RV-JR</td>
			<td>To keep mice under anesthesia during surgical procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Black braided silk 4-0 USP</td>
			<td>Surgical Specialties</td>
			<td>SP116</td>
			<td>Used for sutures on the neck for pMCAO surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bupivacaine</td>
			<td>Hospira</td>
			<td>0409-1159-18</td>
			<td>Used prior to closing wounds during surgical procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6 Mice</td>
			<td>Jackson Lab</td>
			<td>#000664</td>
			<td>Mice used for studying ischemic stroke (2-6 month old male/female)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clear suture</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>8606</td>
			<td>Used for closing wound (PT stroke and pMCAO). A clear suture won&#39;t interfere with PAT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cold Light LED</td>
			<td>Schott</td>
			<td>KL 1600</td>
			<td>Needed to create PT stroke</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Razor Blade</td>
			<td>Accutec Blades</td>
			<td>74-0002</td>
			<td>For sectioning mouse brain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electric drill</td>
			<td>JSDA</td>
			<td>JD-700</td>
			<td>Used to expose MCA during pMCAO procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrocauterization tool</td>
			<td>Wet-Field</td>
			<td>Wet-Field Bipolar-RG</td>
			<td>Stops blood flow after drilling during pMCAO procedure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hair removal gel</td>
			<td>Veet</td>
			<td>8282651</td>
			<td>Used to remove hair from mouse prior to imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Temperature Cautery Loop Tip</td>
			<td>BOVIE Medical Corporation</td>
			<td>REF AA03</td>
			<td>Used to avoid bleeding when separating the temporal muscle from the skull</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IR Detector Card</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>VRC5</td>
			<td>Used to ensure light path is aligned</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser Power Meter</td>
			<td>Ophir</td>
			<td>StarBright, P/N 7Z01580</td>
			<td>Can be used to calibrate the laser energy prior to imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser Speckle Imaging System</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.</td>
			<td>RFLSI-III</td>
			<td>Can be used to validate stroke surgery success</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lubricant Eye Ointment</td>
			<td>Soothe</td>
			<td>AB31336</td>
			<td>Can be used to avoid drying of the eyes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manually adjustable stage</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>L490</td>
			<td>Used with custom ramp for multiple focal depth AA imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Modified Vega Imaging System</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>LLA00061</td>
			<td>System containing both B-mode/AA and PAT transducers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical Parametric Oscillator</td>
			<td>Quantel</td>
			<td>versaScan-L532</td>
			<td>Allows for tuning of excitation wavelength in a large range</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Programmable Ultrasound System</td>
			<td>Verasonics</td>
			<td>Vantage 256</td>
			<td>Used for PAT part of system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rose Bengal</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>330000</td>
			<td>Necessary to induce PT stroke</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Suture</td>
			<td>LOOK</td>
			<td>SP116</td>
			<td>Used for permanent ligation of CCA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature Contoller</td>
			<td>Physitemp</td>
			<td>TCAT-2</td>
			<td>Used to maintain stable body temperature of mice during procedures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VesselVue Microbubbles</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>P-4007001</td>
			<td>Used for acoustic angiography (2.43 &#215; 10^9 microbubbles/mL)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

integrated photoacoustic, ultrasound, and angiographic tomography (pausat) for noninvasive whole-brain imaging of ischemic stroke

Presented here is an experimental ischemic stroke study using our newly developed noninvasive imaging system that integrates three acoustic-based imaging technologies: photoacoustic, ultrasound, and angiographic tomography (PAUSAT). Combining these three modalities helps acquire multi-spectral photoacoustic tomography (PAT) of the brain blood oxygenation, high-frequency ultrasound imaging of the brain tissue, and acoustic angiography of the cerebral blood perfusion. The multi-modal imaging platform allows the study of cerebral perfusion and oxygenation changes in the whole mouse brain after stroke. Two commonly used ischemic stroke models were evaluated: the permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) model and the photothrombotic (PT) model. PAUSAT was used to image the same mouse brains before and after a stroke and quantitatively analyze both stroke models. This imaging system was able to clearly show the brain vascular changes after ischemic stroke, including significantly reduced blood perfusion and oxygenation in the stroke infarct region (ipsilateral) compared to the uninjured tissue (contralateral). The results were confirmed by both laser speckle contrast imaging and triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Furthermore, stroke infarct volume in both stroke models was measured and validated by TTC staining as the ground truth. Through this study, we have demonstrated that PAUSAT can be a powerful tool in noninvasive and longitudinal preclinical studies of ischemic stroke.

Imaging of blood vessel morphology in the brain 
AA generates blood vessel morphology images by exciting microbubbles in the circulatory system at their resonant frequency and receiving the super harmonic response of the microbubbles. By using the customized ramp (Figure 2C) attached to a manually adjustable stage, we can image the mouse brain with AA mode at two different focal depths. When deeper regions are targeted, more superficial regions (such as the cerebral cor...

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Author Spotlight: Integrated Photoacoustic, Ultrasound, and Angiographic Tomography (PAUSAT) for NonInvasive Whole-Brain Imaging of Ischemic Stroke  

This work demonstrates the use of a multimodal ultrasound-based imaging platform for noninvasive imaging of ischemic stroke. This system allows for the quantification of blood oxygenation through photoacoustic imaging and impaired perfusion in the brain through acoustic angiography.

Integrated Photoacoustic, Ultrasound, and Angiographic Tomography (PAUSAT) for NonInvasive Whole-Brain Imaging of Ischemic Stroke

Presented here is an experimental ischemic stroke study using our newly developed noninvasive imaging system that integrates three acoustic-based imaging ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

1.2K Views.  Duke University. This work demonstrates the use of a multimodal ultrasound-based imaging platform for noninvasive imaging of ischemic stroke. This system allows for the quantification of blood oxygenation through photoacoustic imaging and impaired perfusion in the brain through acoustic angiography.

Video: Author Spotlight: Integrated Photoacoustic, Ultrasound, and Angiographic Tomography (PAUSAT) for NonInvasive Whole-Brain Imaging of Ischemic Stroke  

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

State-Dependency Effects on TMS:  A Look at Motive Phosphene Behavior

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.1,2 Within the field of TMS, the term state dependency refers to the initial, baseline condition of the particular neural region targeted for stimulation. As can be inferred, the effects of TMS can (and do) vary according to this primary susceptibility and responsiveness of the targeted cortical area.3,4,5

In this experiment, we will examine this concept of state dependency through the elicitation and subjective experience of motive phosphenes. Phosphenes are visually perceived flashes of small lights triggered by electromagnetic pulses to the visual cortex. These small lights can assume varied characteristics depending upon which type of visual cortex is being stimulated. In this particular study, we will be targeting motive phosphenes as elicited through the stimulation of V1/V2 and the V5/MT+ complex visual regions.6

In this article, we examine the effects of visually relevant state dependency on TMS induced motive phosphenic presentations.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate ...

Micron-scale Resolution Optical Tomography of Entire Mouse Brains with Confocal Light Sheet Microscopy

Understanding the architecture of mammalian brain at single-cell resolution is one of the key issues of neuroscience. However, mapping neuronal soma and projections throughout the whole brain is still challenging for imaging and data management technologies. Indeed, macroscopic volumes need to be reconstructed with high resolution and contrast in a reasonable time, producing datasets in the TeraByte range. We recently demonstrated an optical method (confocal light sheet microscopy, CLSM) capable of obtaining micron-scale reconstruction of entire mouse brains labeled with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Combining light sheet illumination and confocal detection, CLSM allows deep imaging inside macroscopic cleared specimens with high contrast and speed. Here we describe the complete experimental pipeline to obtain comprehensive and human-readable images of entire mouse brains labeled with fluorescent proteins. The clearing and the mounting procedures are described, together with the steps to perform an optical tomography on its whole volume by acquiring many parallel adjacent stacks. We showed the usage of open-source custom-made software tools enabling stitching of the multiple stacks and multi-resolution data navigation. Finally, we illustrated some example of brain maps: the cerebellum from an L7-GFP transgenic mouse, in which all Purkinje cells are selectively labeled, and the whole brain from a thy1-GFP-M mouse, characterized by a random sparse neuronal labeling.

In this article we describe the full experimental procedure to reconstruct, with high resolution, the fine brain anatomy of fluorescently labeled mouse brains. The described protocol includes sample preparation and clearing, specimen mounting for imaging, data post-processing and multi-scale visualization.

Understanding the architecture of mammalian  brain at single-cell resolution is one of the key issues of neuroscience.  However, mapping neuronal soma and ...

Non-invasive Parenchymal, Vascular and Metabolic High-frequency Ultrasound and Photoacoustic Rat Deep Brain Imaging

Photoacoustics and high frequency ultrasound stands out as powerful tools for neurobiological applications enabling high-resolution imaging on the central nervous system of small animals. However, transdermal and transcranial neuroimaging is frequently affected by low sensitivity, image aberrations and loss of space resolution, requiring scalp or even skull removal before imaging. To overcome this challenge, a new protocol is presented to gain significant insights in brain hemodynamics by photoacoustic and high-frequency ultrasounds imaging with the animal skin and skull intact. The procedure relies on the passage of ultrasound (US) waves and laser directly through the fissures that are naturally present on the animal cranium. By juxtaposing the imaging transducer device exactly in correspondence to these selected areas where the skull has a reduced thickness or is totally absent, one can acquire high quality deep images and explore internal brain regions that are usually difficult to anatomically or functionally describe without an invasive approach. By applying this experimental procedure, significant data can be collected in both sonic and optoacoustic modalities, enabling to image the parenchymal and the vascular anatomy far below the head surface. Deep brain features such as parenchymal convolutions and fissures separating the lobes were clearly visible. Moreover, the configuration of large and small blood vessels was imaged at several millimeters of depth, and precise information were collected about blood fluxes, vascular stream velocities and the hemoglobin chemical state. This repertoire of data could be crucial in several research contests, ranging from brain vascular disease studies to experimental techniques involving the systemic administration of exogenous chemicals or other objects endowed with imaging contrast enhancement properties. In conclusion, thanks to the presented protocol, the US and PA techniques become an attractive noninvasive performance-competitive means for cortical and internal brain imaging, retaining a significant potential in many neurologic fields.

The present work describes a new protocol to perform non-invasive high-frequency ultrasound and photoacoustic based imaging on rat brain, to efficiently visualize deep subcortical regions and their vascular patterns by directing signals on skull foramina naturally present on animal cranium.

Photoacoustics and high frequency ultrasound stands out as powerful tools for neurobiological applications enabling high-resolution imaging on the central ...

A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Protocol for Stroke Onset Time Estimation in Permanent Cerebral Ischemia

MRI provides a sensitive and specific imaging tool to detect acute ischemic stroke by means of a reduced diffusion coefficient of brain water. In a rat model of ischemic stroke, differences in quantitative T1 and T2 MRI relaxation times (qT1 and qT2) between the ischemic lesion (delineated by low diffusion) and the contralateral non-ischemic hemisphere increase with time from stroke onset. The time dependency of MRI relaxation time differences is heuristically described by a linear function and thus provides a simple estimate of stroke onset time. Additionally, the volumes of abnormal qT1 and qT2 within the ischemic lesion increase linearly with time providing a complementary method for stroke timing. A (semi)automated computer routine based on the quantified diffusion coefficient is presented to delineate acute ischemic stroke tissue in rat ischemia. This routine also determines hemispheric differences in qT1 and qT2 relaxation times and the location and volume of abnormal qT1 and qT2 voxels within the lesion. Uncertainties associated with onset time estimates of qT1 and qT2 MRI data vary from &plusmn; 25 min to &plusmn; 47 min for the first 5 hours of stroke. The most accurate onset time estimates can be obtained by quantifying the volume of overlapping abnormal qT1 and qT2 lesion volumes, termed 'Voverlap' (&plusmn; 25 min) or by quantifying hemispheric differences in qT2 relaxation times only (&plusmn; 28 min). Overall, qT2 derived parameters outperform those from qT1. The current MRI protocol is tested in the hyperacute phase of a permanent focal ischemia model, which may not be applicable to transient focal brain ischemia.

A protocol for stroke onset time estimation in a rat model of stroke exploiting quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) parameters is described. The procedure exploits diffusion MRI for delineation of the acute stroke lesion and quantitative T1 and T2 (qT1 and qT2) relaxation times for timing of stroke.

MRI provides a sensitive and specific imaging tool to detect acute ischemic stroke by means of a reduced diffusion coefficient of brain water. In a rat ...

Optimized Management of Endovascular Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke

This manuscript describes a streamlined protocol for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke, which aims at the minimization of time from hospital admission to reperfusion. Rapid restoration of cerebral blood flow is essential for the outcomes of patients with acute ischemic stroke. Endovascular treatment (EVT) has become the standard of care to accomplish this in patients with acute stroke due to large vessel occlusion (LVO). To achieve reperfusion of ischemic brain regions as fast as possible, all in-hospital time delays have to be carefully avoided. Therefore, management of patients with acute ischemic stroke was optimized with an interdisciplinary standard operating procedure (SOP). Stroke neurologists, diagnostic as well as interventional neuroradiologists, and anesthesiologists streamlined all necessary processes from patient admission and diagnosis to EVT of eligible patients. Target times for every step were established. Actually achieved times were prospectively recorded along with clinical data and imaging scores for all endovascularly treated stroke patients. These data were regularly analyzed and discussed in interdisciplinary team meetings. Potential issues were evaluated and all staff involved was trained to adhere to the SOP. This streamlined patient management approach and enhanced interdisciplinary collaboration reduced time from patient admission to reperfusion significantly and was accompanied by a beneficial effect on clinical outcomes.

The outcome of patients with acute ischemic stroke depends on swift restoration of cerebral blood flow. This protocol aims at optimizing the management of such patients by minimizing peri-procedural timings and rendering the time from hospital admission to reperfusion as short as possible.

This manuscript describes a streamlined protocol for the management of patients with acute ischemic stroke, which aims at the minimization of time from ...

An In Vivo Assessment of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in a Rat Model of Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke leads to vasogenic cerebral edema and subsequent primary brain injury, which is mediated through destruction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Rats with induced ischemic stroke were established and used as in vivo models to investigate the functional integrity of the BBB. Spectrophotometric detection of Evans blue (EB) in the brain samples with ischemic injury could provide reliable justification for the research and development of novel therapeutic modalities. This method generates reproducible results, and is applicable in any laboratory without a need for special equipment. Here, we present a visualized and technical guideline on the detection of the extravasation of EB following induction of ischemic stroke in rats.

An In Vivo Assessment of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in a Rat Model of Ischemic Stroke

The overall goal of this procedure is to provide a highly reproducible technique for in vivo assessment of the blood-brain barrier disruption in rat models of ischemic stroke.

Ischemic stroke leads to vasogenic cerebral edema and subsequent primary brain injury, which is mediated through destruction of the blood-brain barrier ...

Time-lapse Live Imaging and Quantification of Fast Dendritic Branch Dynamics in Developing Drosophila Neurons

Highly motile dendritic filopodia are widely present in neurons at early developmental stages. These exploratory dynamic branches sample the surrounding environment and initiate contacts with potential synaptic partners. Although the connection between dendritic branch dynamics and synaptogenesis is well established, how developmental and activity-dependent processes regulate dendritic branch dynamics is not well understood. This is partly due to the technical difficulties associated with the live imaging and quantitative analyses of these fine structures using an in vivo system. We established a method to study dendrite dynamics using Drosophila larval ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), which can be individually labeled using genetic approaches and are accessible for live imaging. Taking advantage of this system, we developed protocols to capture branch dynamics of the whole dendritic arbor of a single labeled LNv through time-lapse live imaging. We then performed post-processing to improve image quality through drift correction and deconvolution, followed by analyzing branch dynamics at the single-branch level by annotating spatial positions of all branch terminals. Lastly, we developed R scripts (Supplementary File) and specific parameters to quantify branch dynamics using the coordinate information generated by the terminal tracing. Collectively, this protocol allows us to achieve a detailed quantitative description of branch dynamics of the neuronal dendritic arbor with high temporal and spatial resolution. The methods we developed are generally applicable to sparsely labeled neurons in both in vitro and in vivo conditions.

Time-lapse Live Imaging and Quantification of Fast Dendritic Branch Dynamics in Developing Drosophila Neurons

Here, we describe the method we employed to image highly motile dendritic filopodia in a live preparation of the Drosophila larval brain, and the protocol we developed to quantify time-lapse 3D imaging datasets for quantitative assessments of dendrite dynamics in developing neurons.

Highly motile dendritic filopodia are widely present in neurons at early developmental stages. These exploratory dynamic branches sample the surrounding ...

Preparing Adult Drosophila melanogaster for Whole Brain Imaging during Behavior and Stimuli Responses

We present a method developed specifically to image the whole Drosophila brain during ongoing behavior such as walking. Head fixation and dissection are optimized to minimize their impact on behavior. This is first achieved by using a holder that minimizes movement hindrances. The back of the fly&#8217;s head is glued to this holder at an angle that allows optical access to the whole brain while retaining the fly&#8217;s ability to walk, groom, smell, taste and see. The back of the head is dissected to remove tissues in the optical path and muscles responsible for head movement artefacts. The fly brain can subsequently be imaged to record brain activity, for instance using calcium or voltage indicators, during specific behaviors such as walking or grooming, and in response to different stimuli. Once the challenging dissection, which requires considerable practice, has been mastered, this technique allows to record rich data sets relating whole brain activity to behavior and stimulus responses.

Preparing Adult Drosophila melanogaster for Whole Brain Imaging during Behavior and Stimuli Responses

We present a method specifically tailored to image the whole brain of adult Drosophila during behavior and in response to stimuli. The head is positioned to allow optical access to the whole brain, while the fly can move its legs and the antennae, the tip of the proboscis, and the eyes can receive sensory stimuli.

We present a method developed specifically to image the whole Drosophila brain during ongoing behavior such as walking. Head fixation and dissection are ...

Whole-Brain 3D Activation and Functional Connectivity Mapping in Mice using Transcranial Functional Ultrasound Imaging

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ultrafast doppler angiography. As brain perfusion is strongly linked to local neuronal activity, this technique allows the whole-brain 3D mapping of task-induced regional activation as well as resting-state functional connectivity, non-invasively, with unmatched spatio-temporal resolution and operational simplicity. In comparison with fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), a main advantage of fUS imaging consists in enabling a complete compatibility with awake and behaving animal experiments. Moreover, fMRI brain mapping in mice, the most used preclinical model in Neuroscience, remains technically challenging due to the small size of the brain and the difficulty to maintain stable physiological conditions. Here we present a simple, reliable and robust protocol for whole-brain fUS imaging in anesthetized and awake mice using an off-the-shelf commercial fUS system with a motorized linear transducer, yielding significant cortical activation following sensory stimulation as well as reproducible 3D functional connectivity pattern for network identification.

This protocol describes the quantification of volumetric cerebral hemodynamic variations in the mouse brain using functional ultrasound (fUS). Procedures for 3D functional activation map following sensory stimulation as well as resting-state functional connectivity are provided as illustrative examples, in anesthetized and awake mice.

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ...