We want to thank all the fellows in the Department of Laboratory Animals of Central South University. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81971791); Shanghai Key Lab of Forensic Medicine, Key Lab of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, China (Academy of Forensic Science) (No. KF202104).

Animal experiments were approved by the Central South University Animal Care and Use Committee. All studies were conducted in line with the welfare and ethical principles of laboratory animals.
1. Animal feeding and anesthetization procedure
<ol>
	<li>Group house 280-320 g Sprague-Dawley male rats and maintain them on a 12 h/12 h light/dark cycle with access to food and water ad libitum. Perform the study after the rats acclimatize for 6 days.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the rat with 3% isoflurane at 0.6 L/min air flow in an induction box until it is non-responsive to paw or tail pinch. Maintain the flow rate for 30 s. 
	NOTE: Pain medications were not used as they would interfere with the rat&#39;s response in the neurobehavioral assessments.</li>
</ol>
2. Preoperative setup
<ol>
	<li>Position a sponge with a hardness value of 35D (weight of 35 kg/m3 of sponge), with identical length and width but a thickness of 12 cm, within an acrylic box (15 cm x 22 cm x 43 cm) lacking a top cover.</li>
	<li>Trim a tin foil (a thickness of 20 &#181;m) and affix it onto the acrylic box using adhesive tape to form a destructible surface capable of supporting the weight of a rat. Additionally, mark a cut line measuring approximately 10 cm to be the designated location for positioning the rat&#39;s head.</li>
	<li>With the aid of an iron stand, firmly secure the PVC tube in place. Prepare a perforated weight, weighing 550 grams with an 18-millimeter diameter. Attach the weight to a fishing line at a height of 1 meter inside a polyvinyl chloride or PVC tube. and adjust the position of the guide tube 3 centimeters above the tin foil.</li>
	<li>Prepare a helmet and a pillow. Make a helmet using a stainless-steel disk measuring 10 mm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness. Prepare a wedge-shaped sponge pillow to place beneath the rat&#39;s head, ensuring that it is perpendicular to the direction of gravity. 
	NOTE: A schematic diagram of the impact apparatus is presented in Figure 1. The helmet serves the purpose of identifying the impact location and enhancing the distribution of external force. The pillow is utilized to guarantee uniform and stable damage.</li>
</ol>
3. mTBI induction
<ol>
	<li>Quickly place the anesthetized rat on its chest on the tin foil. 
	NOTE: Two operators are required for mTBI induction-one for the preparation and the other for verification.</li>
	<li>Preparation: Place the pillow beneath the rat, ensuring its head is parallel to the foil paper. Align the helmet with the rat&#39;s ears and secure it in place.</li>
	<li>Verification: Verify that the PVC pipe is positioned directly above the helmet. Once both operators confirm the correct setup, proceed to the next step.</li>
	<li>Induction of head rotation: Release the weight, allowing it to fall and strike the rat&#39;s head, inducing a fall onto the sponge and a 180&#176; rotation.</li>
	<li>Place the rat on its back in a clean cage.</li>
</ol>
4. Sham induction
<ol>
	<li>Treat the rat the same way as the previous mTBI induction description, but do not subject it to the head impact.</li>
</ol>
5. Validation procedure: Acute neurobehavioral assessments
NOTE: The following assessments were modified based on the Neurological Severity Scores9 and the protocol by Flierl et al.10. All these assessments were performed 10 min after the rat recovered the righting reflex.
<ol>
	<li>Time of loss of consciousness: Record the duration from when the rat is anesthetized to when it recovers the righting reflex. 
	NOTE: The righting reflex is the process in which the rat turns over when placed on its back. Loss of righting reflex is to be considered as a humane endpoint, and the animal must be euthanized as per institutional guidelines.</li>
	<li>First seeking-behavior time: Record the duration from when the rat is anesthetized to when it shows the seeking behavior for the first time. 
	NOTE: Seeking behavior is a sign of interest in the environment, a physiological response.</li>
	<li>Ability to escape
	<ol>
		<li>Place the rat in the middle of a circular apparatus (0.5 m diameter and 0.3 m height) with an exit (12.5 cm long and 9 cm wide).</li>
		<li>Record the time the rat takes to exit the circle. 
		NOTE: If the rat does not exit the circle within 180 s, record the time as 180 s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Beam balance ability test
	<ol>
		<li>Place the rat on a 3 cm, 2 cm, and 1.5 cm wide beam for 1 min accordingly.</li>
		<li>If the rat maintains a balance with a steady posture on the beam, score it as 0.</li>
		<li>If the rat grasps the side of the beam, give a score of 1. If the rat hugs the beam and one limb falls off it, score it as 2.</li>
		<li>If the rat hugs the beam and the two limbs fall off it or spin on it (&#62;60 s), score it as 3.</li>
		<li>If the rat attempts to balance on the beam but falls off (&#62; 40 s), score it as 4.</li>
		<li>If the rat attempts to balance on the beam but falls off (&#62;20 s), score it as 5.</li>
		<li>If the rat does not attempt to balance or hang on the beam and falls off within 20 s, score it as 6. 
		NOTE: The beam balance test does not require a pre-trial.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Validation procedure: Neurobehavior assessment
NOTE: Prior to the behavioral experiments, the rats were handled for 2 min daily for 3 consecutive days to minimize stress and novelty disruption. All behavioral experiments were performed by placing the animals in the test environment for 60 min prior to the start of the experiment.
<ol>
	<li>Motor coordination ability (Beam task)
	<ol>
		<li>Experimental setup
		<ol>
			<li>Place the rats on one end of the balance beam (1.5 m long and 75 cm above the floor). Place an escape box (a slanted bedding home cage) on the other end.</li>
			<li>Position a foam padding below the beam to mitigate the potential risk of injury to rats in case of falls during the test.</li>
			<li>Turn on the video camera.</li>
			<li>Schedule testing days at specific time points post-injury or post-sham treatment (e.g., day 1, day 3, and day 7).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Training phase (2 days)
		<ol>
			<li>Train the rats to cross the 4 cm wide beam 3 consecutive times, followed by two trials on the 2 cm wide beam.</li>
			<li>During the training, gently guide the rats across the beam until they can cross them easily without interference.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Balance beam experiment
		<ol>
			<li>Place the rats on the 2 cm wide beam for 5 consecutive trials.</li>
			<li>Record the start and end of each trial when the rat&#39;s nose crosses the starting and finishing lines, respectively.</li>
			<li>Return the rats to their cages at the end of the experiment.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Baseline testing
		<ol>
			<li>Conduct the balance beam experiment before the injury or treatment.</li>
			<li>Calculate the average values from these 5 consecutive trials to establish the baseline for each rat.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Data analysis
		<ol>
			<li>Analyze the time to cross the beam and the total number of hindfoot slips using video analysis by researchers blinded to the experimental conditions.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Anxiety (Open field test)
	<ol>
		<li>Experimental setup
		<ol>
			<li>Prepare the open field arena, ensuring it is clean and free from any previous odor cues. Divide the arena into three zones: a central inner zone (33 cm x 33 cm), a middle zone (66 cm x 66 cm), and an outer zone.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Testing phase
		<ol>
			<li>Place a rat in the center of the open field arena and start the timer. Allow the rat to explore the arena for 5 min freely. After 5 min, carefully and gently return the rat to its home cage.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Data collection
		<ol>
			<li>Measure the total distance traveled by the rat during the 5-minute exploration period. Determine the time the rat spends in the central inner, middle, and outer zones.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Data analysis
		<ol>
			<li>Use the total distance traveled as a measure of overall exploratory behavior and locomotor ability. Calculate the time spent in the central inner zone as an indicator of anxiety-like responses.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Learning and memory abilities (Morris water maze test)
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure the water maze apparatus is in proper condition. Dye the water black and place cues in the four cardinal directions. Position the platform 2.5 cm below the water surface.</li>
		<li>Set up a monitoring system to record and observe the behavior of the rats.</li>
		<li>Trail day
		<ol>
			<li>Quickly place the rat into the water maze. If the rat fails to reach the platform within 2 min, gently guide it using the wooden stick.</li>
			<li>Allow the rat to familiarize itself with the maze environment while standing on the platform for 20 s, then remove it. Once the rat is on the platform, let it stay for 20 s, then remove it.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Daily repetition
		<ol>
			<li>Repeat the training day procedure, placing the rat in the water from different quadrants. Repeat step 6.3.3. Continue the training for 5 consecutive days.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Probe test day: On the 6th day, remove the platform and place the rat in the same quadrant for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Observation and recording: Utilize the monitoring system to monitor the rat&#39;s behavior on trial and probe test days.</li>
		<li>Cleaning: After removing the rat from the water maze, use a towel to dry it thoroughly.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Validating Injury Response and Behavioral Assessments in an mTBI Rat Model

<ol>
	<li>Silverberg, N. D., Duhaime, A. C., Iaccarino, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mild+traumatic+brain+injury+in+2019-2020.">Mild traumatic brain injury in 2019-2020.</a> JAMA. 323 (2), 177-178 (2020).</li><li>Kim, K., Priefer, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+current+post-concussion+protocols.">Evaluation of current post-concussion protocols.</a> Biomedicine &amp; Pharmacotherapy. 129, 110406 (2020).</li><li>Peeters, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidemiology+of+traumatic+brain+injury+in+Europe.">Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Europe.</a> Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien). 157 (10), 1683-1696 (2015).</li><li>Kabadi, S. V., Hilton, G. D., Stoica, B. A., Zapple, D. N., Faden, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluid-percussion-induced+traumatic+brain+injury+model+in+rats.">Fluid-percussion-induced traumatic brain injury model in rats.</a> Nature Protocols. 5 (9), 1552-1563 (2010).</li><li>Smith, D. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+model+of+parasagittal+controlled+cortical+impact+in+the+mouse:+cognitive+and+histopathologic+effects.">A model of parasagittal controlled cortical impact in the mouse: cognitive and histopathologic effects.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 12 (2), 169-178 (1995).</li><li>Feeney, D. M., Boyeson, M. G., Linn, R. T., Murray, H. M., Dail, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responses+to+cortical+injury:+I.+Methodology+and+local+effects+of+contusions+in+the+rat.">Responses to cortical injury: I. Methodology and local effects of contusions in the rat.</a> Brain Research. 211 (1), 67-77 (1981).</li><li>Cernak, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pathobiology+of+blast+injuries+and+blast-induced+neurotrauma+as+identified+using+a+new+experimental+model+of+injury+in+mice.">The pathobiology of blast injuries and blast-induced neurotrauma as identified using a new experimental model of injury in mice.</a> Neurobiology of Disease. 41 (2), 538-551 (2011).</li><li>Shultz, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+potential+for+animal+models+to+provide+insight+into+mild+traumatic+brain+injury:+Translational+challenges+and+strategies.">The potential for animal models to provide insight into mild traumatic brain injury: Translational challenges and strategies.</a> Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 76 (Pt B), 396-414 (2017).</li><li>Chen, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Therapeutic+benefit+of+intravenous+administration+of+bone+marrow+stromal+cells+after+cerebral+ischemia+in+rats.">Therapeutic benefit of intravenous administration of bone marrow stromal cells after cerebral ischemia in rats.</a> Stroke. 32 (4), 1005-1011 (2001).</li><li>Flierl, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+closed+head+injury+model+induced+by+a+weight-drop+device.">Mouse closed head injury model induced by a weight-drop device.</a> Nature Protocols. 4 (9), 1328-1337 (2009).</li><li>Kane, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+mouse+model+of+human+repetitive+mild+traumatic+brain+injury.">A mouse model of human repetitive mild traumatic brain injury.</a> J Neuroscience Methods. 203 (1), 41-49 (2012).</li><li>Mychasiuk, R., Farran, A., Esser, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+an+experimental+rodent+model+of+pediatric+mild+traumatic+brain+injury.">Assessment of an experimental rodent model of pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 31 (8), 749-757 (2014).</li><li>Pham, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mild+closed-head+injury+in+conscious+rats+causes+transient+neurobehavioral+and+glial+disturbances:+A+novel+experimental+model+of+concussion.">Mild closed-head injury in conscious rats causes transient neurobehavioral and glial disturbances: A novel experimental model of concussion.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 36 (14), 2260-2271 (2019).</li><li>Jacotte-Simancas, A., Molina, P., Gilpin, N. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Repeated+mild+traumatic+brain+injury+and+JZL184+produce+sex-specific+increases+in+anxiety-like+behavior+and+alcohol+consumption+in+Wistar+rats.">Repeated mild traumatic brain injury and JZL184 produce sex-specific increases in anxiety-like behavior and alcohol consumption in Wistar rats.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. , (2023).</li><li>Levin, H. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Association+of+sex+and+age+with+mild+traumatic+brain+injury-related+symptoms:+A+TRACK-TBI+study.">Association of sex and age with mild traumatic brain injury-related symptoms: A TRACK-TBI study.</a> JAMA Network Open. 4 (4), e213046 (2021).</li></ol>

The authors have no financial interest to disclose.

This model successfully simulates a closed-head mTBI without the need for scalp incision or skull opening, providing a more accurate representation of the impact scenario observed in human cases. The avoidance of scalp incision helps prevent inflammatory responses that may not align with the actual situation. Compared to Richelle Mychasiuk's pediatric model12, the model used in this study is specifically tailored for adult rats weighing between 280-320 g, enabling us to obtain valuable insights in...

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), or concussion, is the most prevalent type of injury and can lead to various short-term and chronic symptoms1. These symptoms may include dizziness, headaches, depression, and anhedonia, among others, leading to significant suffering for individuals affected by mTBI2. Since most mTBIs are caused by blunt force trauma3, it becomes imperative to develop animal models that accurately mimic such injuries. These models are essential for gaining a better understanding of the injury and its underlying mechanisms, offering a controlled environment with reduced variability and heterogeneity compared to human studies.
Numerous well-established rodent models have been developed for traumatic brain injury (TBI), including fluid percussion injury (FPI)4, controlled cortical impact (CCI)5, weight-drop injury6, blast traumatic brain injury7, and others. However, these models primarily focus on replicating moderate to severe TBI scenarios. In contrast, the experimental models specifically designed to simulate mTBI have received relatively less attention and remain underexplored8. Therefore, there is a critical need to establish a stable and reproducible animal model that accurately represents mTBI. Such a model would significantly enhance our understanding of the neurobiological and behavioral consequences associated with mTBI.
One cannot distinguish the functional deficits in mTBI rats compared to normal rats via casual observation after the effects of anesthesia have worn off. Therefore, it is necessary to administer specific tests. In humans, a wide range of clinical assessments are used to evaluate patients9,10,11. Similarly, establishing a successful model in the rat model also requires using rapid assessment tools to determine its validity.
In this study, we present a closed-head mTBI rat model, enabling the investigation of mTBI in a manner that closely resembles the human condition. The detailed description of the model and its validation procedure provides a comprehensive understanding of the experimental approach utilized in studying mTBI.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylic box</td>
			<td>In-house</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>15 cm x 22 cm x 43 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthesia Machine</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.</td>
			<td>R540 Mice &#38; Rat Animal Anesthesia Machine</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Helmet</td>
			<td>In-house</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Stainless-steel disk measuring 10 mm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Morris water maze</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Diameter 150 cm, height 50 cm,platform diameter 35 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Open field</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.</td>
			<td>63007</td>
			<td>Width100 cm, height 40 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Panlab SMART V3.0</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.</td>
			<td>SMART v3.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perforated weight</td>
			<td>In-house</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Weight of 550 g and diameter of 18 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pillow</td>
			<td>In-house</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Wedge-shaped sponge to place beneath the rat&#39;s head</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

rat model of closed-head mild traumatic injury and its validation

Animal models are crucial for advancing our understanding of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and guiding clinical research. To achieve meaningful insights, developing a stable and reproducible animal model is essential. In this study, we report a detailed description of a closed-head mTBI model and a representative validation method using Sprague-Dawley rats to verify the modeling effect. The model involves dropping a 550 g mass weight from a height of 100 cm directly onto the head of a rat on a destructible surface, followed by a 180-degree turn. To assess the injury, rats underwent a series of neurobehavioral assessments 10 min post-injury, including time of loss of consciousness, first seeking-behavior time, escape ability, and beam balance ability test. During the acute and subacute stages following the injury, behavioral tests were conducted to assess motor coordination ability (Beam task), anxiety (Open Field test), and learning and memory abilities (Morris Water Maze test). The closed-head mTBI model produced a consistent injury response with minimal mortality and replicated real-life situations. The validation method effectively verified the model development and ensured the stability and consistency of the model.

The apparatus used in this work was a modified version of the Kane model and Richelle Mychasiuk&#39;s pediatric model11,12. In this study, SD rats were assigned to sham and mTBI groups. To demonstrate the reproducibility of this model, we conducted three independent replicates of this model along with the acute neurobehavioral assessment, with each experiment involving 8-12 rats. In this study, we used more than 30 mTBI rats, with...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Advancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research â€” A Closed-Head Model for Accurate Replication and Rapid Assessment at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Advancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research - A Closed-Head Model for Accurate Replication and Rapid Assessment 

Here, we present a closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) rat model and its validation exhibiting remarkable similarity to human mTBI concerning behavioral manifestations during the acute and subacute stages.

Rat Model of Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Injury and its Validation

Animal models are crucial for advancing our understanding of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and guiding clinical research. To achieve meaningful ...

In this study, we introduced a closed-head, mild traumatic brain injury rat model, and provided a comprehensive overview of its validation. Our goal was to offer a straightforward approach for replicating this type of brain injury and a rapid assessment method for confirming the success of the model. This model successfully simulates a closed-head, mild traumatic brain injury without the need for scalp incision or skull opening, provide a more accurate representation of the impact scenario observed in human cases.The avoidance of scalp incision helps to prevent inflammatory responses that may not align with the active situation. Mild traumatic brain injury lacks subjective and accurate diagnostic methods. In the future, our laboratory will continue to explore possible biomolecular markers and their deep molecular mechanisms, and help to transform the obtained molecular markers into clinical and forensic identification practices.

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1.1K Views.  School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University. In this study, we introduced a closed-head, mild traumatic brain injury rat model, and provided a comprehensive overview of its validation. Our goal was to offer a straightforward approach for replicating this type of brain injury and a rapid assessment method for confirming the success of the model. This model successfully simulates a closed-head, mild traumatic brain injury without the need for scalp incision or skull opening, provide a more accurate representation of the impact scenario ob...

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research - A Closed-Head Model for Accurate Replication and Rapid Assessment 

Investigations on Alterations of Hippocampal Circuit Function Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) afflicts more than 1.7 million people in the United States each year and even mild TBI can lead to persistent neurological impairments 1. Two pervasive and disabling symptoms experienced by TBI survivors, memory deficits and a reduction in seizure threshold, are thought to be mediated by TBI-induced hippocampal dysfunction 2,3. In order to demonstrate how altered hippocampal circuit function adversely affects behavior after TBI in mice, we employ lateral fluid percussion injury, a commonly used animal model of TBI that recreates many features of human TBI including neuronal cell loss, gliosis, and ionic perturbation 4-6.
	Here we demonstrate a combinatorial method for investigating TBI-induced hippocampal dysfunction. Our approach incorporates multiple ex vivo physiological techniques together with animal behavior and biochemical analysis, in order to analyze post-TBI changes in the hippocampus. We begin with the experimental injury paradigm along with behavioral analysis to assess cognitive disability following TBI. Next, we feature three distinct ex vivo recording techniques: extracellular field potential recording, visualized whole-cell patch-clamping, and voltage sensitive dye recording. Finally, we demonstrate a method for regionally dissecting subregions of the hippocampus that can be useful for detailed analysis of neurochemical and metabolic alterations post-TBI.
	These methods have been used to examine the alterations in hippocampal circuitry following TBI and to probe the opposing changes in network circuit function that occur in the dentate gyrus and CA1 subregions of the hippocampus (see Figure 1). The ability to analyze the post-TBI changes in each subregion is essential to understanding the underlying mechanisms contributing to TBI-induced behavioral and cognitive deficits. 
	The multi-faceted system outlined here allows investigators to push past characterization of phenomenology induced by a disease state (in this case TBI) and determine the mechanisms responsible for the observed pathology associated with TBI.

A multi-faceted approach to investigating functional changes to hippocampal circuitry is explained. Electrophysiological techniques are described along with the injury protocol, behavioral testing and regional dissection method. The combination of these techniques can be applied in similar fashion for other brain regions and scientific questions.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) afflicts more than 1.7 million people in the United States each year and even mild TBI can lead to persistent neurological ...

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies using Drosophila have contributed important breakthroughs in understanding neurological processes. Thus, with the goal of understanding the cellular and molecular basis of TBI pathologies in humans, we developed the High Impact Trauma (HIT) device to inflict closed head TBI in flies. Flies subjected to the HIT device display phenotypes consistent with human TBI such as temporary incapacitation and progressive neurodegeneration. The HIT device uses a spring-based mechanism to propel flies against the wall of a vial, causing mechanical damage to the fly brain. The device is inexpensive and easy to construct, its operation is simple and rapid, and it produces reproducible results. Consequently, the HIT device can be combined with existing experimental tools and techniques for flies to address fundamental questions about TBI that can lead to the development of diagnostics and treatments for TBI. In particular, the HIT device can be used to perform large-scale genetic screens to understand the genetic basis of TBI pathologies.

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Here we describe a method to inflict closed head traumatic brain injury (TBI) in Drosophila. This method provides a gateway to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie TBI pathologies using the vast array of experimental tools and techniques available for flies.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies ...

Advanced Diffusion Imaging in The Hippocampus of Rats with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is the most common type of acquired brain injury. Since patients with traumatic brain injury show a tremendous variability and heterogeneity (age, gender, type of trauma, other possible pathologies, etc.), animal models play a key role in unraveling factors that are limitations in clinical research. They provide a standardized and controlled setting to investigate the biological mechanisms of injury and repair following TBI. However, not all animal models mimic the diffuse and subtle nature of mTBI effectively. For example, the commonly used controlled cortical impact (CCI) and lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) models make use of a craniotomy to expose the brain and induce widespread focal trauma, which are not commonly seen in mTBI. Therefore, these experimental models are not valid to mimic mTBI. Thus, an appropriate model should be used to investigate mTBI. The Marmarou weight drop model for rats induces similar microstructural alterations and cognitive impairments as seen in patients who sustain mild trauma; therefore, this model was selected for this protocol. Conventional computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans commonly show no damage following a mild injury, because mTBI induces often only subtle and diffuse injuries. With diffusion weighted MRI, it is possible to investigate microstructural properties of brain tissue, which can provide more insight into the microscopic alterations following mild trauma. Therefore, the goal of this study is to obtain quantitative information of a selected region-of-interest (i.e., hippocampus) to follow up disease progression after obtaining a mild and diffuse brain injury.

The overall goal of this procedure is to obtain quantitative microstructural information of the hippocampus in a rat with mild traumatic brain injury. This is done using an advanced diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging protocol and region-of-interest based analysis of parametric diffusion maps.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is the most common type of acquired brain injury. Since patients with traumatic brain injury show a tremendous ...

Low-intensity Blast Wave Model for Preclinical Assessment of Closed-head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Rodents

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a large-scale public health problem. Mild TBI is the most prevalent form of neurotrauma and accounts for a large number of medical visits in the United States. There are currently no FDA-approved treatments available for TBI. The increased incidence of military-related, blast-induced TBI further accentuates the urgent need for effective TBI treatments. Therefore, new preclinical TBI animal models that recapitulate aspects of human blast-related TBI will greatly advance the research efforts into the neurobiological and pathophysiological processes underlying mild to moderate TBI as well as the development of novel therapeutic strategies for TBI.
Here we present a reliable, reproducible model for the investigation of the molecular, cellular, and behavioral effects of mild to moderate blast-induced TBI. We describe a step-by-step protocol for closed-head, blast-induced mild TBI in rodents using a bench-top setup consisting of a gas-driven shock tube equipped with piezoelectric pressure sensors to ensure consistent test conditions. The benefits of the setup that we have established are its relative low-cost, ease of installation, ease of use and high-throughput capacity. Further advantages of this non-invasive TBI model include the scalability of the blast peak overpressure and the generation of controlled reproducible outcomes. The reproducibility and relevance of this TBI model has been evaluated in a number of downstream applications, including neurobiological, neuropathological, neurophysiological and behavioral analyses, supporting the use of this model for the characterization of processes underlying the etiology of mild to moderate TBI.

We present here a protocol of a blast wave model for rodents to investigate neurobiological and pathophysiological effects of mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. We established a gas-driven, bench-top setup equipped with pressure sensors allowing for reliable and reproducible generation of blast-induced mild to moderate traumatic brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a large-scale public health problem. Mild TBI is the most prevalent form of neurotrauma and accounts for a large number of ...

Electromagnetic Controlled Closed-Head Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Highly reproducible animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI), with well-defined pathologies, are needed for testing therapeutic interventions and understanding the mechanisms of how a TBI alters brain function. The availability of multiple animal models of TBI is necessary to model the different aspects and severities of TBI seen in people. This manuscript describes the use of a midline closed head injury (CHI) to develop a mouse model of mild TBI. The model is considered mild because it does not produce structural brain lesions based on neuroimaging or gross neuronal loss. However, a single impact creates enough pathology that cognitive impairment is measurable at least 1 month after injury. A step-by-step protocol to induce a CHI in mice using a stereotaxically guided electromagnetic impactor is defined in the paper. The benefits of the mild midline CHI model include the reproducibility of the injury-induced changes with low mortality. The model has been temporally characterized up to 1 year after the injury for neuroimaging, neurochemical, neuropathological, and behavioral changes. The model is complementary to open skull models of controlled cortical impact using the same impactor device. Thus, labs can model both mild diffuse TBI and focal moderate-to-severe TBI with the same impactor.

The protocol describes mild traumatic brain injury in a mouse model. In particular, a step-by-step protocol to induce a mild midline closed head injury and the characterization of the animal model is fully explained.

Highly reproducible animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI), with well-defined pathologies, are needed for testing therapeutic interventions and ...

Assessing Changes in Synaptic Plasticity Using an Awake Closed-Head Injury Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) are a prevalent health issue in North America. There is increasing pressure to utilize ecologically valid models of closed-head mTBI in the preclinical setting to increase translatability to the clinical population. The awake closed-headed injury (ACHI) model uses a modified controlled cortical impactor to deliver closed-headed injury, inducing clinically relevant behavioral deficits without the need for a craniotomy or the use of an anesthetic.
This technique does not normally induce fatalities, skull fractures, or brain bleeds, and is more consistent with being a mild injury. Indeed, the mild nature of the ACHI procedure makes it ideal for studies investigating repetitive mTBI (r-mTBI). Growing evidence indicates that r-mTBI can result in a cumulative injury that produces behavioral symptoms, neuropathological changes, and neurodegeneration. r-mTBI is common in youths playing sports, and these injuries occur during a period of robust synaptic reorganization and myelination, making the younger population particularly vulnerable to the long-term influences of r-mTBI.
Further, r-mTBI occurs in cases of intimate partner violence, a condition for which there are few objective screening measures. In these experiments, synaptic function was assessed in the hippocampus in juvenile rats that had experienced r-mTBI using the ACHI model. Following the injuries, a tissue slicer was utilized to make hippocampal slices to evaluate bidirectional synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus at either 1 or 7 days following the r-mTBI. Overall, the ACHI model provides researchers with an ecologically valid model to study changes in synaptic plasticity following mTBI and r-mTBI.

Here, it is demonstrated how an awake closed-head injury model can be used for examining the effects of repeated mild traumatic brain injury (r-mTBI) on synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. The model replicates important features of r-mTBI in patients and is used in conjunction with in vitro electrophysiology.

Mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) are a prevalent health issue in North America. There is increasing pressure to utilize ecologically valid models of ...

rmTBI Induction in Mice via a Closed-Head Injury Method

Modified Mouse Model of Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Incorporating Thinned-Skull Window and Fluid Percussion

Mild traumatic brain injury is a clinically highly heterogeneous neurological disorder. Highly reproducible traumatic brain injury (TBI) animal models with well-defined pathologies are urgently needed for studying the mechanisms of neuropathology after mild TBI and testing therapeutics. Replicating the entire sequelae of TBI in animal models has proven to be a challenge. Therefore, the availability of multiple animal models of TBI is necessary to account for the diverse aspects and severities seen in TBI patients. CHI is one of the most common methods for fabricating rodent models of rmTBI. However, this method is susceptible to many factors, including the impact method used, the thickness and shape of the skull bone, animal apnea, and the type of head support and immobilization utilized. The aim of this protocol is to demonstrate a combination of the thinned-skull window and fluid percussion injury (FPI) methods to produce a precise mouse model of CHI-associated rmTBI. The primary objective of this protocol is to minimize factors that could impact the accuracy and consistency of CHI and FPI modeling, including skull bone thickness, shape, and head support. By utilizing a thinned-skull window method, potential inflammation due to craniotomy and FPI is minimized, resulting in an improved mouse model that replicates the clinical features observed in patients with mild TBI. Results from behavior and histological analysis using hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining suggest that rmTBI can lead to a cumulative injury that produces changes in both behavior and gross morphology of the brain. Overall, the modified CHI-associated rmTBI presents a useful tool for researchers to explore the underlying mechanisms that contribute to focal and diffuse pathophysiological changes in rmTBI.

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Rodent Models for Investigating the Mechanisms and Rehabilitation in Repeated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

This protocol presents a modified mouse model of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) induced via a closed-head injury (CHI) method. The approach features a thinned-skull window and fluid percussion to reduce the inflammation commonly caused by meninges exposure, along with improved reproducibility and accuracy in modeling rmTBI in rodents.

Mild traumatic brain injury is a clinically highly heterogeneous neurological disorder. Highly reproducible traumatic brain injury (TBI) animal models ...

Fluorescent Dye-Based Visualization of Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown in Mice

Evaluation of Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown in a Mouse Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Fluorescent dyes are used to determine the extent of dye extravasation that occurs due to blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. Labeling with these dyes is a complex process influenced by several factors, such as the concentration of dyes in the blood, permeability of brain vessels, duration of dye extravasation, and reduction in dye concentration in the tissue due to degradation and diffusion. In a mild traumatic brain injury model, exposure to blast-induced shock waves (BSWs) triggers BBB breakdown within a limited time window. To determine the precise sequence of BBB breakdown, Evans blue, and fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran were injected intravascularly and intracardially into mice at various time points relative to BSW exposure. The distribution of dye fluorescence in brain slices was then recorded. Differences in the distribution and intensity between the two dyes revealed the spatiotemporal sequence of BBB breakdown. Immunostaining of the brain slices showed that astrocytic and microglial responses correlated with the sites of BBB breakdown. This protocol has broad potential for application in studies involving different BBB breakdown models.

A method was developed to visualize dye extravasation due to blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown by administering two fluorescent dyes to mice at different time points. The use of glycerol as a cryoprotectant facilitated immunohistochemistry on the same sample.

Fluorescent dyes are used to determine the extent of dye extravasation that occurs due to blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. Labeling with these dyes is ...

CHILD Model &#8212; Recapitulating Juvenile Concussion and Long-Term Outcomes in Mice

A Pediatric Concussion Model in Mice: Closed Head Injury with Long-Term Disorders (CHILD)

Concussions and mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI) during childhood represent a significant health endangerment, with many patients later in life exhibiting debilitating physiological, neurological, and psychosocial outcomes. The cellular and molecular pathophysiological mechanisms are relatively unknown, and this significant gap effectively precludes investigations into specific therapeutic strategies to mitigate chronic sequelae. No single animal concussion model recapitulates all the features reported in human subjects, and current models are designed to answer specific research questions. We set out to develop a juvenile concussion that recapitulates clinical early, and long-term symptomology encountered, termed Closed Head Injury with Long-term Disorder (CHILD). In this model, a concussive force via an electromagnetic impactor is delivered to the head of a lightly anesthetized unrestrained post-natal day 17 (P17) mouse, allowing free rotation of the head. Mice are placed on a tightly stretched tin foil across a stereotactic device, and the impactor is carefully aligned with the targeted cortical region. The electromagnetic impactor facilitates the selection of impact depth, dwell, and duration to determine injury severity. A strength of this model is that it allows head rotation, an important clinical feature. After impact, mice are immediately monitored for righting time and time to explore their environment, followed by their return to their dam. Increasing the severity of concussion results in intracranial bleeds in a subset of mice. Mice can be routinely monitored for behavior and neuroimaging over their lifespan, as desired. Various injury severities mimic the heterogeneous nature of juvenile concussions. The current standard CHILD model exhibits no skull fracture, no observable conventional neuroimaging change (similar to clinical), but leads to progressive and persistent neuronal death, altered diffusion MRI, modified neuronal activity and plasticity, increased gliosis, and progressive behavioral perturbations with age. In summary, this CHILD model mimics the early and long-term features observed in many clinical concussion patients.

Pediatric concussions can result in long-term sequelae with physiological and psychological perturbations. This pediatric concussion mouse model results in long-term neuroinflammation, white matter alterations, and neuronal modifications with behavioral dysfunction. The model can be adapted to differential impact locations or repeated concussions to assess lifetime changes.

Concussions and mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI) during childhood represent a significant health endangerment, with many patients later in life ...