The study was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81960226,81760223); the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (202001AS070045,202301AY070001-011)

The experimental protocol was approved by the Animal Ethics and Use Committee of Kunming Medical University (kmmu20220945). Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats of both sexes, 300-350 g, were used for the present study.
1. Inducing the SAH model
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize the rats using 2% isoflurane and 100% oxygen. Maintain anesthesia by supplying continuous inhalation anesthesia with isoflurane (1%-3%). Secure the rat&#39;s head using a stereotaxic apparatus (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Create the SAH model following the steps below.
	<ol>
		<li>Insert a microinjection needle into the suprasellar cistern. Then, inject autologous blood from the rat&#39;s tail artery (without anticoagulant) into the suprasellar cistern using a syringe pump (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Implant a microinjection needle into the right lateral cerebral ventricle using the mentioned coordinates: bregma, &#8722;0.8 mm; lateral, 1.4 mm; depth, 4 mm9. For SAH groups, inject 0.2 mL of rat tail artery blood. For sham groups, administer the same volume of isotonic saline (Figure 1A).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Brain slice preparation and stabilization
<ol>
	<li>Deeply anesthetize the rats using 2% isoflurane inhalation. After decapitation, extract the entire brains and immerse them in ice-cold artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF). 
	NOTE: Use freshly prepared ACSF solutions with the following composition: 134 mM NaCl, 2.8 mM KCl, 29 mM NaHCO3, 1.1 mM NaH2PO4, 1.5 mM MgSO4, 2.5 mM CaCl2, and 10.11 mM D-Glucose (see Table of Materials). Maintain a pH between 7.3 and 7.4.</li>
	<li>Use a vibratome (see Table of Materials) to prepare acute brain slices with a thickness of 200 &#181;m from the SD rats in ice-cold ACSF that&#39;s aerated with 5% CO2 and 95% O2 (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Place the 200 &#181;m-thick acute brain slices in a storage chamber on a nylon mesh submerged in ACSF. Equilibrate the ACSF solution with 95% O2 and 5% CO2, maintaining a temperature range of 35-37 &#176;C. Allow brain slices to stabilize for 2 h, giving them time to adjust (Figure 3).</li>
</ol>
3. Labeling pericytes in acute brain slices with TO-PRO-3
NOTE: Pericytes from acute brain slices were fluorescently labeled using the tracer TO-PRO-310.
<ol>
	<li>Add the fluorescent dye TO-PRO-3 to the ACSF, achieving a final concentration of 1 &#181;M. Incubate the acute brain slices at room temperature in a dark environment with the TO-PRO-3-containing ACSF for 20 min. 
	NOTE: Remember to wear latex gloves while handling TO-PRO-3 for protection.</li>
	<li>Transfer the nylon mesh strainer, carrying the brain slices, from the loading chamber to a 6-well plate rinsing chamber (see Table of Materials). Allow the brain slices to stay in the rinsing chamber for 10 min (Figure 4D). 
	NOTE: This rinsing step terminates the staining process, decreases background labeling, and prevents nonspecific staining.</li>
	<li>Rinse the preparations for a total of 15 min using ACSF solution that&#39;s equilibrated with a mixture of 5% CO2 and 95% O2. This rinsing step halts dye uptake and minimizes background labeling (Figure 4C).</li>
</ol>
4. Staining non-vital pericytes of cerebral microcirculation in acute brain slices
<ol>
	<li>Incubate brain slices preloaded with TO-PRO-3 at 37 &#176;C with isolectin B4 conjugated to Alexa Fluor 488 (FITC-ISOB4; 5 &#181;g/mL, see Table of Materials) for 30 min in a dark environment. After incubation, rinse the brain slices for 15 min in ACSF (Figure 4E).</li>
	<li>Incubate the brain slices in ACSF gassed with 5% CO2 and 95% O2 as usual. Add propidium iodide (PI) at a concentration of 37 &#181;M to both solutions at 37 &#176;C. This will label non-vital brain pericytes. Incubate the preparations in this ACSF solution for 60 min in the dark (Figure 4F).</li>
	<li>Next, rinse the preparations for 15 min with ACSF solutions to halt dye uptake and minimize background labeling.</li>
</ol>
5. Imaging of vital and non-vital brain pericytes in acute brain slices
<ol>
	<li>Gently transfer brain slices to glass bottom confocal dishes (see Table of Materials) using plastic Pasteur pipettes. Fill the dishes with ACSF solution previously equilibrated with 5% CO2 and 95% O2. Use an iron mesh to secure rat brain slices in place.</li>
	<li>Transfer the glass bottom confocal dishes to the stage of a confocal microscope. Position the acute brain slice at the bottom of the dish and perfuse9 it with ACSF solution equilibrated with a mixture of 95% O2 and 5% CO2 during confocal microscopy imaging (Figure 5A and Figure 5Ab&#39;).</li>
	<li>Visualize the wall cells of the cerebral cortical microvasculature using a 40x objective. Capture image stacks using compatible software (see Table of Materials). Use appropriate filters for IB4 (excitation/emission 460 nm/520 nm), PI (excitation/emission 545 nm/595 nm), and TO-PRO-3 (excitation/emission 606 nm/666 nm) (Figure 5D). 
	NOTE: Capture images with the following details: 40&#215; DIC N1 objective lens, 3 &#215; 12 bit: 512 &#215; 512 pixels (0.22 &#215; 0.22 mm), calibration: 0.42 &#181;m/px.</li>
	<li>Identify cerebral microvasculature and pericytes based on their network and morphology. Locate a specific region containing a cerebral microvasculature network on each brain slice and capture images.</li>
	<li>Carefully note the imaging location to ensure consistency in subsequent captures (Figure 5B,C). For further processing and analysis, use image analysis software (ImageJ) and photo editing software (see Table of Materials).</li>
</ol>

Visualization of Brain Pericyte Contractility Post-Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

<ol>
	<li>Dalkara, T., Gursoy-Ozdemir, Y., Yemisci, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+microvascular+pericytes+in+health+and+disease.">Brain microvascular pericytes in health and disease.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 122 (1), 1-9 (2011).</li><li>Dore-Duffy, P., Cleary, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphology+and+properties+of+pericytes.">Morphology and properties of pericytes.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J). 686, 49-68 (2011).</li><li>Peppiatt, C. M., Howarth, C., Mobbs, P., Attwell, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bidirectional+control+of+CNS+capillary+diameter+by+pericytes.">Bidirectional control of CNS capillary diameter by pericytes.</a> Nature. 443 (7112), 700-704 (2006).</li><li>Attwell, D., Mishra, A., Hall, C. N., O'Farrell, F. M., Dalkara, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What+is+a+pericyte.">What is a pericyte.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism: Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 36 (2), 451-455 (2016).</li><li>Yemisci, M., Gursoy-Ozdemir, Y., Vural, A., Can, A., Topalkara, K., Dalkara, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pericyte+contraction+induced+by+oxidative-nitrative+stress+impairs+capillary+reflow+despite+successful+opening+of+an+occluded+cerebral+artery.">Pericyte contraction induced by oxidative-nitrative stress impairs capillary reflow despite successful opening of an occluded cerebral artery.</a> Nature Medicine. 15 (9), 1031-1037 (2009).</li><li>Korte, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noradrenaline+released+from+locus+coeruleus+axons+contracts+cerebral+capillary+pericytes+via+&#945;2+adrenergic+receptors.">Noradrenaline released from locus coeruleus axons contracts cerebral capillary pericytes via &#945;2 adrenergic receptors.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism: Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. , (2023).</li><li>Hirunpattarasilp, C., Barkaway, A., Davis, H., Pfeiffer, T., Sethi, H., Attwell, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperoxia+evokes+pericyte-mediated+capillary+constriction.">Hyperoxia evokes pericyte-mediated capillary constriction.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism: Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 42 (11), 2032-2047 (2022).</li><li>Neuhaus, A. A., Couch, Y., Sutherland, B. A., Buchan, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+method+to+study+pericyte+contractility+and+responses+to+ischaemia+in+vitro+using+electrical+impedance.">Novel method to study pericyte contractility and responses to ischaemia in vitro using electrical impedance.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism: Official Journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 37 (6), 2013-2024 (2017).</li><li>Gong, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+TRPM4+Activity+in+cerebral+artery+myocytes+contributes+to+cerebral+blood+flow+reduction+after+subarachnoid+hemorrhage+in+rats.">Increased TRPM4 Activity in cerebral artery myocytes contributes to cerebral blood flow reduction after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats.</a> Neurotherapeutics: The Journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics. 16 (3), 901-911 (2019).</li><li>Mai-Morente, S. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pericyte+mapping+in+cerebral+slices+with+the+far-red+fluorophore+TO-PRO-3.">Pericyte mapping in cerebral slices with the far-red fluorophore TO-PRO-3.</a> Bio-protocol. 11 (22), e4222 (2021).</li><li>Mai-Morente, S. P., Marset, V. M., Blanco, F., Isasi, E. E., Abudara, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+nuclear+fluorescent+dye+identifies+pericytes+at+the+neurovascular+unit.">A nuclear fluorescent dye identifies pericytes at the neurovascular unit.</a> Journal of Neurochemistry. 157 (4), 1377-1391 (2021).</li><li>Zhao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rationale+for+the+real-time+and+dynamic+cell+death+assays+using+propidium+iodide.">Rationale for the real-time and dynamic cell death assays using propidium iodide.</a> Cytometry. Part A: The Journal of the International Society for Analytical Cytology. 77 (4), 399-405 (2010).</li><li>Van Hooijdonk, C. A., Glade, C. P., Van Erp, P. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TO-PRO-3+iodide:+A+novel+HeNe+laser-excitable+DNA+stain+as+an+alternative+for+propidium+iodide+in+multiparameter+flow+cytometry.">TO-PRO-3 iodide: A novel HeNe laser-excitable DNA stain as an alternative for propidium iodide in multiparameter flow cytometry.</a> Cytometry. 17 (2), 185-189 (1994).</li><li>Lacar, B., Herman, P., Platel, J. C., Kubera, C., Hyder, F., Bordey, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+progenitor+cells+regulate+capillary+blood+flow+in+the+postnatal+subventricular+zone.">Neural progenitor cells regulate capillary blood flow in the postnatal subventricular zone.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 32 (46), 16435-16448 (2012).</li><li>Mai-Morente, S. P., Marset, V. M., Blanco, F., Isasi, E. E., Abudara, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+nuclear+fluorescent+dye+identifies+pericytes+at+the+neurovascular+unit.">A nuclear fluorescent dye identifies pericytes at the neurovascular unit.</a> Journal of Neurochemistry. 157 (4), 1377-1391 (2021).</li><li>Hezel, M., Ebrahimi, F., Koch, M., Dehghani, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Propidium+iodide+staining:+a+new+application+in+fluorescence+microscopy+for+analysis+of+cytoarchitecture+in+adult+and+developing+rodent+brain.">Propidium iodide staining: a new application in fluorescence microscopy for analysis of cytoarchitecture in adult and developing rodent brain.</a> Micron (Oxford, England). 43 (10), 1031-1038 (2012).</li><li>Mathiisen, T. M., Lehre, K. P., Danbolt, N. C., Ottersen, O. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Developed are high-resolution confocal imaging techniques for visualizing vital brain pericytes, non-vital brain pericytes, and the microvasculature in brain slices. In acute rat brain slices, the process entails initial labeling of pericytes with TO-PRO-311, followed by microvascular endothelial cells with IB412; subsequently, identification of deceased pericytes is conducted using PI. This protocol is straightforward, reproducible, and highly applicable for functional res...

Brain pericytes, distinguished by their slender protuberances and protruding cell bodies, encircle the microcirculation1,2. While cerebral blood flow augmentation is predominantly driven by capillary dilation, smaller arteries exhibit slower rates of dilation3. Pericyte contractility exerts influence over capillary diameter and pericyte morphology, impacting vascular dynamics4. Contraction of brain pericytes leads to capillary constriction, and in pathological scenarios, excessive contraction may impede erythrocyte flow5. Various factors, including norepinephrine released from the locus coeruleus, can induce brain pericyte contraction within capillaries6. With a regulatory role in cerebral blood flow, pericytes exhibit 20-HETE synthesis, serving as an oxygen sensor during hyperoxia7. Oxidative-nitrative stress-triggered contraction of brain pericytes detrimentally affects capillaries5. Despite both in vivo and ex vivo investigations into brain pericyte contraction8, limited knowledge persists regarding the imaging of viable and non-viable brain pericytes within brain slices.
Crucially, post-tissue fixation imaging of brain pericytes compromises their vitality and subsequent contractility assessment. Moreover, in scenarios such as neurological disorders (e.g., subarachnoid hemorrhage - SAH), transgenic labeling of brain pericytes fails to differentiate between viable and non-viable pericytes, as confirmed by our preliminary SAH-induced brain pericyte death study9. 
To surmount these challenges, we employed TO-PRO-3 to label live pericytes, while deceased ones were stained with propidium iodide (PI). We used high-resolution confocal imaging technologies to visualize viable and non-viable brain pericytes in brain slices while preserving slice activity during imaging. This article aims to present a reproducible method for imaging viable and non-viable brain pericytes in brain slices, serving as a valuable tool to probe the impact of brain pericytes on cerebral microcirculation post SAH.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>6-well plate</td>
			<td>ABC biochemistry</td>
			<td>ABC703006</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adobe Photoshop</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td>Adobe Illustrator CS6 16.0.0</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium foil</td>
			<td>MIAOJIE</td>
			<td>225 mm x 273 mm</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2&#183;2H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C3881</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal imaging software</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>NIS-Elements 4.10.00</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>N-SIM/C2si</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas tank (5% CO2, 95% O2)</td>
			<td>PENGYIDA</td>
			<td>40L</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Bottom Confocal Dishes</td>
			<td>Beyotime</td>
			<td>FCFC020-10pcs</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G5767</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glue</td>
			<td>EVOBOND</td>
			<td>KH-502</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice machine</td>
			<td>XUEKE</td>
			<td>IMS-20</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image analysis software</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>Image J</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inhalation anesthesia system</td>
			<td>SCIENCE</td>
			<td>QAF700</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isolectin B 4-FITC</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>L2895&#8211;2MG</td>
			<td>Store aliquots at &#8211;20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7447&#8211;40&#8211;7</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0662</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M7506</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7647&#8211;14&#8211;5</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4&#183;H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>10049&#8211;21&#8211;5</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>NEST Biotechnology</td>
			<td>318314</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peristaltic Pump</td>
			<td>Scientific Industries Inc</td>
			<td>Model 203</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propidium (Iodide)</td>
			<td>Med Chem Express</td>
			<td>HY-D0815/CS-7538</td>
			<td>Store aliquots at &#8211;20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic apparatus</td>
			<td>SCIENCE</td>
			<td>QA</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>Harvard PUMP</td>
			<td>PUMP 11 ELITE Nanomite</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermostatic water bath</td>
			<td>OLABO</td>
			<td>HH-2</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibrating microtome</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>VT1200</td>
			<td>RT</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

imaging vital and non-vital brain pericytes in brain slices following subarachnoid hemorrhage

Pericytes are crucial mural cells situated within cerebral microcirculation, pivotal in actively modulating cerebral blood flow via contractility adjustments. Conventionally, their contractility is gauged by observing morphological shifts and nearby capillary diameter changes under specific circumstances. Yet, post-tissue fixation, evaluating vitality and ensuing pericyte contractility of imaged brain pericytes becomes compromised. Similarly, genetically labeling brain pericytes falls short in distinguishing between viable and non-viable pericytes, particularly in neurologic conditions like subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), where our preliminary investigation validates brain pericyte demise. A reliable protocol has been devised to surmount these constraints, enabling simultaneous fluorescent tagging of both functional and non-functional brain pericytes in brain sections. This labeling method allows high-resolution confocal microscope visualization, concurrently marking the brain slice microvasculature. This innovative protocol offers a means to appraise brain pericyte contractility, its impact on capillary diameter, and pericyte structure. Investigating brain pericyte contractility within the SAH context yields insightful comprehension of its effects on cerebral microcirculation.

Author Spotlight: Imaging Pericytes Post-Subarachnoid Hemorrhaging in Rodents 

Imaging Vital and Non-vital Brain Pericytes in Brain Slices following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Under normal physiological conditions, brain pericytes generally do not undergo cell death. Figure 6 illustrates this phenomenon, with yellow indicating the presence of vital brain pericytes; brain pericytes show no staining with PI, indicating their viability. To further investigate whether pericytes remain attached to the microvasculature following cell death, methods were employed in a SAH rat model, and subsequent imaging was conducted.
Methods for imaging bot...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging Pericytes Post-Subarachnoid Hemorrhaging in Rodents at JoVE.com

The preliminary inquiry confirms that subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) causes brain pericyte demise. Evaluating pericyte contractility post-SAH requires differentiation between viable and non-viable brain pericytes. Hence, a procedure has been developed to label viable and non-viable brain pericytes concurrently in brain sections, facilitating observation using a high-resolution confocal microscope.

Pericytes are crucial mural cells situated within cerebral microcirculation, pivotal in actively modulating cerebral blood flow via contractility ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

715 Views.  The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University. The preliminary inquiry confirms that subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) causes brain pericyte demise. Evaluating pericyte contractility post-SAH requires differentiation between viable and non-viable brain pericytes. Hence, a procedure has been developed to label viable and non-viable brain pericytes concurrently in brain sections, facilitating observation using a high-resolution confocal microscope.