这项工作是从澳大利亚国家健康与医学研究委员会（NHMRC＃559007）和青少年糖尿病研究基金会（JDRF 4-2006-1025）和经营性基础设施计划，维多利亚州政府的拨款支持。我们感谢汤姆·曼德尔胰岛移植计划胰岛分离团队成员提供人体组织。收集和使用人体组织与当地的伦理批准（圣文森特医院HREC-A 011/04和圣文森的健康HREC-A 135/08）。

1。准备脾组织<ol><li>注意 - 所有的人力物力应被视为潜在的传染性，所有程序都必须在II级层流柜进行。用无菌剪刀和镊子，从的脾部分（约1-2厘米大小），并修剪掉尽可能多的外包膜材料尽可能消除脂肪和纤维组织。 </li><li>切一小片（1-2厘米）的脾组织，并把每一块成为一个无菌的50毫升Falcon管。 </li><li>捕捉冻结的组织浸泡在液体中N 2。 </li><li>贮存于-80℃。一个类似的协议是适用于其他组织（S）。 </li></ol> 2。人类胰岛存储准备<ol><li>文化小岛CMRL媒体。收藏报错胰岛在10毫升的锥形底部管，并通过在1,500 rpm下离心5分钟，在PBS中洗两次。倒出PBS和简要纸巾上放置的倒管排出的剩余的缓冲区。请注意，不要打跑了小岛。 </li><li>一旦倒掉，重新盖上管，液态氮和存储卡冻结在-80°C。 </li></ol> 3。准备提取物<ol><li>准备BAW（10:30:60％V / V）混合，储存于4°C。 </li><li>取下管子从-80°C。在室温下解冻。 </li><li>添加足够的冰冷的BAW覆盖片组织。小岛使用3-5毫升。对于脾组织片组织的大小取决于使用10-20毫升。 </li><li>装配的组织匀浆。由&#39;均质&#39;10-20毫升的70％乙醇/水进行清洁。 </li><li>均质化的组织在多个脉冲串，后到管放置在匀化器探针，与组织和BAW溶液。此后保持管在冰 - 铲斗。 </li><li>彻底清洁样品之间的均化器，均质化10〜20毫升的70％乙醇/水，然后BAW缓冲区。这可以防止交叉污染的组织之间samples.Dismantleand干净后，用70％乙醇/水我们E。 </li><li>是必需的，如果仅含有水溶性材料的提取物离心匀浆组织提取物在RT下在4,000 rpm，10分钟。如果更粗提物是必需的，在RT下以1,000 rpm旋转5分钟。用于提取的BAW不溶性蛋白质的最合适的方法取决于下游分析的蛋白质。对于使用的功能的免疫学测定方法中，我们建议尝试在8M脲溶解不溶性成分，因为我们先前已经发现这是很好的耐受性6。 </li><li>上清转移到一个干净的试管，并把它放在冰。 </li><li>确定使用的BCA测定法或类似的提取物中的蛋白质浓度。 </li></ol> 4。冷冻干燥提取物<ol><li>根据蛋白质所需的质量（ 即 100微克每管），相应的稀释匀浆，并免除取到标有"5.0毫升无菌，猎鹰（12x75毫米）管。我们经常使用的100微克/管。 </li><li>使用一个18-20号无菌注射器针头，使每个管帽的3个孔。 </li><li>或者通过将它们放置〜10分钟，或&gt; 1小时，在-80℃的冰箱中，在干冰上冷冻管。储存在-80°C至准备把冻干机。 </li><li>切换冷冻干燥器上，并允许平衡（-100℃）。这需要大约30分钟。 </li><li>视音量而定，冷冻干燥，可以在3小时内完成，但我们经常离开我们的样本中过夜。 </li><li>在干燥循环完成后，关闭真空泵和慢慢允许进入腔室的压力。卸下机架上。 </li><li>在无菌罩，取出穿孔的上限从管，并更换新的（猎鹰352032）。 </li><li>于-20℃下存储管样品可重新溶解在培养基中，或其他缓冲液，用于在功能上或生化分析。 </li></ol> 5。代表性的成果 图1示出的一种蛋白质的染色凝胶装载，与脾脏提取物和胰岛耗尽胰腺组织（腺泡）和纯化的人胰岛（标记小岛）。结果显示，不同分子量的蛋白质为每一个组织良好的代表性。 的组织提取物刺激人类T-细胞增殖的能力，使用的CFSE基于增殖试验7（ 图2）进行了测试。在该测定中使用的PBMC中分离出从个人与1型糖尿病。 CFSE 昏暗每5,000 CD4 +，CFSE明亮的细胞没有细胞抗原的数量的比例的幅度响应表示为:CFSE 昏暗的细胞每5000 CD4 +，CFSE明亮的细胞与抗原一式三份样品7。结果表明弱，但检测，增殖腺泡（CD1 = 3.5）和更强的反应胰岛提取物（6.8）。作为流感病毒灭活（CDI = 142.6）阳性对照。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/4230/4230fig1.jpg" /> 图1。蛋白质凝胶。 <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/4230/4230fig2.jpg" /> 图2。从CFSE增殖实验对腺泡细胞和胰岛提取物的结果。 <a href="http://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/4230/4230fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">点击此处查看大图</a> 。

<ol>
	<li>Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+approaches+to+measuring+human+islet-antigen+specific+T+cell+function+in+type+1+diabetes.">Current approaches to measuring human islet-antigen specific T cell function in type 1 diabetes.</a> Clin. Exp. Immunol. 162, 197-209 (2010).</li><li>Beckhove, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+T+cell-based+identification+of+human+tumor+tissue+antigens+by+automated+two-dimensional+protein+fractionation.">Rapid T cell-based identification of human tumor tissue antigens by automated two-dimensional protein fractionation.</a> J. Clin. Invest. 120, 2230-2242 (2010).</li><li>Mannering, S. I., Brodnicki, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+insights+into+CD4++T-cell+specificity+and+function+in+Type+1+diabetes.">Recent insights into CD4+ T-cell specificity and function in Type 1 diabetes.</a> Expert Review of Clinical Immunology. 3, 557-564 (2007).</li><li>Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+A-chain+of+insulin+is+a+hot-spot+for+CD4++T+cell+epitopes+in+human+type+1+diabetes.">The A-chain of insulin is a hot-spot for CD4+ T cell epitopes in human type 1 diabetes.</a> Clin. Exp. Immunol. 156, 226-231 (2009).</li><li>Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+insulin+A-chain+epitope+recognized+by+human+T+cells+is+posttranslationally+modified.">The insulin A-chain epitope recognized by human T cells is posttranslationally modified.</a> J. Exp. Med. 202, 1191-1197 (2005).</li><li>Moon, H. C., Joffe, M., Thomas, H. E., Kay, T. W. H., Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+extracting+tissue+proteins+for+use+in+lymphocyte+function+assays.">A method for extracting tissue proteins for use in lymphocyte function assays.</a> Journal of Immunological Methods. 359, 56-60 (2010).</li><li>Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+sensitive+method+for+detecting+proliferation+of+rare+autoantigen-specific+human+T+cells.">A sensitive method for detecting proliferation of rare autoantigen-specific human T cells.</a> J. Immunol. Methods. 283, 173-183 (2003).</li><li>Mannering, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CD4++T+Cell+Proliferation+in+Response+to+GAD+and+Proinsulin+in+Healthy,+Pre-diabetic,+and+Diabetic+Donors.">CD4+ T Cell Proliferation in Response to GAD and Proinsulin in Healthy, Pre-diabetic, and Diabetic Donors.</a> Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1037, 16-21 (2004).</li><li>Mannering, S. I., Purcell, A. W., Honeyman, M. C., McCluskey, J., Harrison, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+T-cells+recognise+N-terminally+Fmoc-modified+peptide.">Human T-cells recognise N-terminally Fmoc-modified peptide.</a> Vaccine. 21, 3638-3646 (2003).</li><li>Peakman, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+preparations+of+GAD65,+proinsulin,+and+the+islet+tyrosine+phosphatase+IA-2+for+use+in+detection+of+autoreactive+T-cells+in+type+1+diabetes:+report+of+phase+II+of+the+Second+International+Immunology+of+Diabetes+Society+Workshop+for+Standardization+of+T-cell+assays+in+type+1+diabetes.">Characterization of preparations of GAD65, proinsulin, and the islet tyrosine phosphatase IA-2 for use in detection of autoreactive T-cells in type 1 diabetes: report of phase II of the Second International Immunology of Diabetes Society Workshop for Standardization of T-cell assays in type 1 diabetes.</a> Diabetes. 50, 1749-1754 (2001).</li><li>Honey, K., Rudensky, A. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lysosomal+cysteine+proteases+regulate+antigen+presentation.">Lysosomal cysteine proteases regulate antigen presentation.</a> Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3, 472-482 (2003).</li></ol>

没有利益冲突的声明。

此协议是因为我们想生成人体组织是免费的，如清洁剂有毒化学品的提取物。具体来说，我们已经用它来 ​​制备人体组织的提取物，可用于检测在体外人体免疫功能。使用该协议制备的提取物可以同样在任何缓冲器重新配制，并用于许多生化分析，如蛋白质印迹法或液相色谱法。这使得该技术适用于许多下游应用。 使用我们的协议中，组织提取物的反应并不强烈。?...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 的试剂的名称 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 目录编号 </td><td> 评论 </td></tr><tr><td> 5毫升12×75毫米无菌聚苯乙烯管</td><td> BD猎鹰</td><td> 352054 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>管聚苯乙烯管上限（上图） </td><td> BD猎鹰</td><td> 352032 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 50毫升无菌试管</td><td> Becton Dickinson公司</td><td> 352070 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>乙腈</td><td> Mallinckradt化学品</td><td> 2856-10 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>丁-1 - 醇</td><td> Sigma Aldrich公司</td><td> 537993-IL </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>均质:PRO200 </td><td>生物战略</td><td> 01-01200 </td><td> 10 x 115毫米的锯齿发生器</td></tr><tr><td>冻干机</td><td></td><td></td><td> VIRTIS，台式4K </td></tr><tr><td>无菌针头18-20计</td><td> Becton Dickinson公司</td><td> REF 302032 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> CMRL-1066中</td><td>西格玛</td><td> C0422 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> PBS </td><td>西格玛</td><td> D8537 </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> 表1中。具体的试剂和设备。

extraction of tissue antigens for functional assays

许多的适应性免疫反应的抗原的目标，已确认由B细胞和T细胞，还没有被定义1。这是特别真实的，在自身免疫性疾病和癌症的2。我们的目的是研究人类T细胞识别的抗原的自身免疫性疾病，1型糖尿病患者1,3,4,5。来分析人体T-细胞的反应，对其中没有确定T细胞所识别的抗原的组织中，我们开发了一种方法来提取蛋白质抗原从人类组织中的格式是兼容的功能分析6。无法测量，因为在此之前，T细胞的反应，未纯化的组织提取物的提取方法产生的裂解物，所含的清洁剂对人体外周血单个核细胞是有毒的。在这里，我们描述一个协议，用于人类T细胞没有毒性的格式是从人体组织中提取蛋白质。该组织均化的混合物中的丁-1 - 醇，乙腈和笏ER（BAW）。的组织提取物中的蛋白质浓度的测定，和公知的蛋白质的质量分装到管。提取后，将有机溶剂，通过冷冻干燥除去。冻干组织提取物被保存，直到需要。用于检测免疫功能，免疫细胞的悬浮液中，在适当的培养介质中，可以直接添加到冻干提取物。外周血单个核细胞的细胞因子的产生及细胞增殖，在响应于用此方法制备的提取物，很容易测定。因此，我们的方法可以作为一个源的抗原的T细胞应答的分析，可用于人体组织裂解物的迅速地制备。我们认为，这种方法将有助于分析适应性免疫反应的组织移植，癌症和自身免疫。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Extraction of Tissue Antigens for Functional Assays at JoVE.com

Extraction of Tissue Antigens for Functional Assays

一个简单的协议，用于制备的人体组织的提取物被用作功能性T细胞分析中的源的抗原进行说明。此方法允许要被测量的组织来源的抗原的T细胞的反应，以<em在体外</em&gt;。

提取组织抗原的功能分析

Many of the antigen targets of adaptive immune response, recognized by B and T cells, have not been defined 1. This is particularly true in autoimmune ...

extraction-of-tissue-antigens-for-functional-assays

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.8K 次观看.  St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research. 一个简单的协议，用于制备的人体组织的提取物被用作功能性T细胞分析中的源的抗原进行说明。此方法允许要被测量的组织来源的抗原的T细胞的反应，以

视频: Extraction of Tissue Antigens for Functional Assays

Light/dark Transition Test for Mice

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, however, can be used to delete or manipulate a specific gene in mice. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can then be determined by conducting behavioral analyses of the mutant mice. As a test for behavioral phenotyping of mutant mice, the light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice to brightly illuminated areas and on their spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The test is sensitive to anxiolytic drug treatment. The apparatus consists of a dark chamber and a brightly illuminated chamber. Mice are allowed to move freely between the two chambers. The number of entries into the bright chamber and the duration of time spent there are indices of bright-space anxiety in mice. To obtain phenotyping results of a strain of mutant mice that can be readily reproduced and compared with those of other mutants, the behavioral test methods should be as identical as possible between laboratories. The procedural differences that exist between laboratories, however, make it difficult to replicate or compare the results among laboratories. Here, we present our protocol for the light/dark transition test as a movie so that the details of the protocol can be demonstrated. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 60 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. Those data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.

Visualization of the protocol will facilitate understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used across laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test.

The light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie that shows detailed procedures on how we conduct the test.

光/暗转换测试小鼠

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, ...

科研

生物学

Actin Co-Sedimentation Assay; for the Analysis of Protein Binding to F-Actin

The actin cytoskeleton within the cell is a network of actin filaments that allows the movement of cells and cellular processes, and that generates tension and helps maintains cellular shape.  Although the actin cytoskeleton is a rigid structure, it is a dynamic structure that is constantly remodeling.  A number of proteins can bind to the actin cytoskeleton.  The binding of a particular protein to F-actin is often desired to support cell biological observations or to further understand dynamic processes due to remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton. The actin co-sedimentation assay is an in vitro assay routinely used to analyze the binding of specific proteins or protein domains with F-actin.  The basic principles of the assay involve an incubation of the protein of interest (full length or domain of) with F-actin, ultracentrifugation step to pellet F-actin and analysis of the protein co-sedimenting with F-actin.  Actin co-sedimentation assays can be designed accordingly to measure actin binding affinities and in competition assays.

Proteins bind to filamentous actin (F-actin) through distinct actin binding modules. In this video we demonstrate the procedure of actin co-sedimentation, which is an in vitro assay routinely used to analyze proteins or specific domains that bind F-actin.

肌动蛋白共沉淀测定;​​ F -肌动蛋白结合蛋白分析

The actin cytoskeleton within the cell is a network of actin filaments that allows the movement of cells and cellular processes, and that generates ...

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical shock or electrical stimulation is available for study of various aspects of seizure activity and behavior. All flies, including wild-type, will undergo seizure-like activity if stimulated at a high enough voltage. Seizure like activity is an all-or-nothing response and each genotype has a specific seizure threshold. The seizure threshold of a specific genotype of fly can be altered either by treatment with a drug or by genetic suppression or enhancement. The threshold is easily measured by electrophysiology. Seizure-like activity can be induced via high frequency electrical stimulation delivered directly to the brain and recorded through the dorsal longitudinal muscles (DLMs) in the thorax. The DLMs are innervated by part of the giant fiber system. Starting with low voltage, high frequency stimulation, and subsequently raising the voltage in small increments, the seizure threshold for a single fly can be measured.

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Using high frequency electrical stimulation, seizure-like activity can be induced in Drosophila. This activity is easily recorded from the giant fiber system.

Neurocircuit检测癫痫发作癫痫突变果蝇</em

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical ...

Crystallizing Membrane Proteins for Structure Determination using Lipidic Mesophases

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the lipidic cubic phase or in meso method. The method has been shown to be quite versatile in that it has been used to solve X-ray crystallographic structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins, proteins that are monomeric, homo- and hetero-multimeric, chromophore-containing and chromophore-free, and alpha-helical and beta-barrel proteins. Recent successes using in meso crystallization are the human engineered beta2-adrenergic and adenosine A2a G protein-coupled receptors. Protocols are presented for reconstituting the membrane protein into the monoolein-based mesophase, and for setting up crystallizations in the manual mode. Additional steps in the overall process, such as crystal harvesting, are to be addressed in future video articles. The time required to prepare the protein-loaded mesophase and to set up a crystallization plate manually is about one hour.

Herein is described the procedure implemented in the Caffrey Membrane Structural and Functional Biology Group to set up manually crystallization trials of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases.

使用油脂介孔结构的测定结晶膜蛋白

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the ...

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal regeneration and sprouting by secreting growth factors 1,2 and providing growth promoting adhesion molecules 3 and extracellular matrix molecules 4. In addition they myelinate the demyelinated axons at the site of injury 5.
However following transplantation, Schwann cells do not migrate from the site of implant and do not intermingle with the host astrocytes 6,7. This results in formation of a sharp boundary between the Schwann cells and astrocytes, creating an obstacle for growing axons trying to exit the graft back into the host tissue proximally and distally. Astrocytes in contact with Schwann cells also undergo hypertrophy and up-regulate the inhibitory molecules 8-13.
In vitro assays have been used to model Schwann cell-astrocyte interactions and have been important in understanding the mechanism underlying the cellular behaviour.
These in vitro assays include boundary assay, where a co-culture is made using two different cells with each cell type occupying different territories with only a small gap separating the two cell fronts. As the cells divide and migrate, the two cellular fronts get closer to each other and finally collide. This allows the behaviour of the two cellular populations to be analyzed at the boundary. Another variation of the same technique is to mix the two cellular populations in culture and over time the two cell types segregate with Schwann cells clumped together as islands in between astrocytes together creating multiple Schwann-astrocyte boundaries.
The second assay used in studying the interaction of two cell types is the migration assay where cellular movement can be tracked on the surface of the other cell type monolayer 14,15. This assay is commonly known as inverted coverslip assay. Schwann cells are cultured on small glass fragments and they are inverted face down onto the surface of astrocyte monolayers and migration is assessed from the edge of coverslip.
Both assays have been instrumental in studying the underlying mechanisms involved in the cellular exclusion and boundary formation. Some of the molecules identified using these techniques include N-Cadherins 15, Chondroitin Sulphate proteoglycans(CSPGs) 16,17, FGF/Heparin 18, Eph/Ephrins19.
This article intends to describe boundary assay and migration assay in stepwise fashion and elucidate the possible technical problems that might occur.

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

This article intends to describe in stepwise fashion the commonly used in vitro assays used in studying Schwann cell-asrtocyte interactions.

雪旺的星形胶质细胞使用相互作用分析<em在体外检测

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal ...

Pharmacological and Functional Genetic Assays to Manipulate Regeneration of the Planarian Dugesia japonica

Free-living planarian flatworms have a long history of experimental usage owing to their remarkable regenerative abilities1. Small fragments excised from these animals reform the original body plan following regeneration of missing body structures. For example if a 'trunk' fragment is cut from an intact worm, a new 'head' will regenerate anteriorly and a 'tail' will regenerate posteriorly restoring the original 'head-to-tail' polarity of body structures prior to amputation (Figure 1A).
Regeneration is driven by planarian stem cells, known as 'neoblasts' which differentiate into ~30 different cell types during normal body homeostasis and enforced tissue regeneration. This regenerative process is robust and easy to demonstrate. Owing to the dedication of several pioneering labs, many tools and functional genetic methods have now been optimized for this model system. Consequently, considerable recent progress has been made in understanding and manipulating the molecular events underpinning planarian developmental plasticity2-9.
The planarian model system will be of interest to a broad range of scientists. For neuroscientists, the model affords the opportunity to study the regeneration of an entire nervous system, rather than simply the regrowth/repair of single nerve cell process that typically are the focus of study in many established models. Planarians express a plethora of neurotransmitters10, represent an important system for studying evolution of the central nervous system11, 12 and have behavioral screening potential13, 14. 
Regenerative outcomes are amenable to manipulation by pharmacological and genetic apparoaches. For example, drugs can be screened for effects on regeneration simply by placing body fragments in drug-containing solutions at different time points after amputation. The role of individual genes can be studied using knockdown methods (in vivo RNAi), which can be achieved either through cycles of microinjection or by feeding bacterially-expressed dsRNA constructs8, 9, 15. Both approaches can produce visually striking phenotypes at high penetrance- for example, regeneration of bipolar animals16-21. To facilitate adoption of this model and implementation of such methods, we showcase in this video article protocols for pharmacological and genetic assays (in vivo RNAi by feeding) using the planarian Dugesia japonica.

Pharmacological and Functional Genetic Assays to Manipulate Regeneration of the Planarian Dugesia japonica

An attractive model for studying stem cell differentiation within a live animal is the planarian flatworm. Regeneration is studied by simple amputation experiments that are easily performed in a basic laboratory and are amenable to pharmacological and genetic (in vivo RNAi) manipulation as detailed by protocols in this article.

药理和功能的遗传分析处理涡虫的再生日本三角涡虫</em

Free-living planarian flatworms have a long history of experimental usage owing to their remarkable regenerative abilities1. Small fragments excised from ...

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element (CRE) Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE possesses an arrangement of binding sites for several transcription factor proteins that confer a regulatory logic specifying when, where, and at what level the regulated gene(s) is expressed. The full set of CREs within an animal genome encodes the organism&prime;s program for development1, and empirical as well as theoretical studies indicate that mutations in CREs played a prominent role in morphological evolution2-4. Moreover, human genome wide association studies indicate that genetic variation in CREs contribute substantially to phenotypic variation5,6. Thus, understanding regulatory logic and how mutations affect such logic is a central goal of genetics. 
Reporter transgenes provide a powerful method to study the in vivo function of CREs. Here a known or suspected CRE sequence is coupled to heterologous promoter and coding sequences for a reporter gene encoding an easily observable protein product. When a reporter transgene is inserted into a host organism, the CRE&prime;s activity becomes visible in the form of the encoded reporter protein. P-element mediated transgenesis in the fruit fly species Drosophila (D.) melanogaster7 has been used for decades to introduce reporter transgenes into this model organism, though the genomic placement of transgenes is random. Hence, reporter gene activity is strongly influenced by the local chromatin and gene environment, limiting CRE comparisons to being qualitative. In recent years, the phiC31 based integration system was adapted for use in D. melanogaster to insert transgenes into specific genome landing sites8-10. This capability has made the quantitative measurement of gene and, relevant here, CRE activity11-13 feasible. The production of transgenic fruit flies can be outsourced, including phiC31-based integration, eliminating the need to purchase expensive equipment and/or have proficiency at specialized transgene injection protocols. 
Here, we present a general protocol to quantitatively evaluate a CRE&prime;s activity, and show how this approach can be used to measure the effects of an introduced mutation on a CRE&prime;s activity and to compare the activities of orthologous CREs. Although the examples given are for a CRE active during fruit fly metamorphosis, the approach can be applied to other developmental stages, fruit fly species, or model organisms. Ultimately, a more widespread use of this approach to study CREs should advance an understanding of regulatory logic and how logic can vary and evolve.

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element CRE Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Phenotypic variation for traits can result from mutations in cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences that control gene expression patterns. Methods derived for use in Drosophila melanogaster can quantitatively compare the levels of spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression mediated by modified or naturally occurring CRE variants.

定量比较顺调节元件（CRE）的活动，在转基因果蝇</em

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE ...

Two Types of Assays for Detecting Frog Sperm Chemoattraction

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension and microscopically visualize sperm accumulation around the pipette1. Sperm chemoattraction in vertebrates such as frogs, rodents and humans is more difficult to detect and requires quantitative assays. Such assays are of two major types - assays that quantitate sperm movement to a source of chemoattractant, so-called sperm accumulation assays, and assays that actually track the swimming trajectories of individual sperm.
Sperm accumulation assays are relatively rapid allowing tens or hundreds of assays to be done in a single day, thereby allowing dose response curves and time courses to be carried out relatively rapidly. These types of assays have been used extensively to characterize many well established chemoattraction systems - for example, neutrophil chemotaxis to bacterial peptides and sperm chemotaxis to follicular fluid. Sperm tracking assays can be more labor intensive but offer additional data on how chemoattractancts actually alter the swimming paths that sperm take. This type of assay is needed to demonstrate the orientation of sperm movement relative to the chemoattrractant gradient axis and to visualize characteristic turns or changes in orientation that bring the sperm closer to the egg.
Here we describe methods used for each of these two types of assays. The sperm accumulation assay utilized is called a "two-chamber" assay. Amphibian sperm are placed in a tissue culture plate insert with a polycarbonate filter floor having 12 &mu;m diameter pores. Inserts with sperm are placed into tissue culture plate wells containing buffer and a chemoatttractant carefully pipetted into the bottom well where the floor meets the wall (see Fig. 1). After incubation, the top insert containing the sperm reservoir is carefully removed, and sperm in the bottom chamber that have passed through the membrane are removed, pelleted and then counted by hemocytometer or flow cytometer.
The sperm tracking assay utilizes a Zigmond chamber originally developed for observing neutrophil chemotaxis and modified for observation of sperm by Giojalas and coworkers2,3. The chamber consists of a thick glass slide into which two vertical troughs have been machined. These are separated by a 1 mm wide observation platform. After application of a cover glass, sperm are loaded into one trough, the chemoattractant agent into the other and movement of individual sperm visualized by video microscopy. Video footage is then analyzed using software to identify two-dimensional cell movements in the x-y plane as a function of time (xyt data sets) that form the trajectory of each sperm.

Eggs and the extracellular coatings around eggs frequently release peptides, proteins and small molecules that communicate with sperm to guide them to the egg thereby promoting fertilization. Using frog sperm we describe and compare two classes of assays used to detect sperm chemoattraction &#x2013; sperm accumulation assays and sperm tracking assays.

两种类型的检测，检测青蛙精子Chemoattraction

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension ...

Use of a Robot for High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX). An essential ingredient of MX is a steady supply of ideally diffraction-quality crystals. The in meso or lipidic cubic phase (LCP) method for crystallizing membrane proteins is one of several methods available for crystallizing membrane proteins. It makes use of a bicontinuous mesophase in which to grow crystals. As a method, it has had some spectacular successes of late and has attracted much attention with many research groups now interested in using it. One of the challenges associated with the method is that the hosting mesophase is extremely viscous and sticky, reminiscent of a thick toothpaste. Thus, dispensing it manually in a reproducible manner in small volumes into crystallization wells requires skill, patience and a steady hand. A protocol for doing just that was developed in the Membrane Structural &amp; Functional Biology (MS&amp;FB) Group1-3. JoVE video articles describing the method are available1,4. 
The manual approach for setting up in meso trials has distinct advantages with specialty applications, such as crystal optimization and derivatization. It does however suffer from being a low throughput method. Here, we demonstrate a protocol for performing in meso crystallization trials robotically. A robot offers the advantages of speed, accuracy, precision, miniaturization and being able to work continuously for extended periods under what could be regarded as hostile conditions such as in the dark, in a reducing atmosphere or at low or high temperatures. An in meso robot, when used properly, can greatly improve the productivity of membrane protein structure and function research by facilitating crystallization which is one of the slow steps in the overall structure determination pipeline. 
In this video article, we demonstrate the use of three commercially available robots that can dispense the viscous and sticky mesophase integral to in meso crystallogenesis. The first robot was developed in the MS&amp;FB Group5,6. The other two have recently become available and are included here for completeness.	
An overview of the protocol covered in this article is presented in Figure 1. All manipulations were performed at room temperature (~20 &deg;C) under ambient conditions.

Herein is described a robotic approach to high-throughput crystallization of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases for use in structure determination using macromolecular X-ray crystallography. Three robots capable of handling the viscous and sticky protein-laden mesophase integral to the method are introduced.

使用机器人在油脂中间相高通量膜蛋白的结晶

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through ...

Small-scale Nuclear Extracts for Functional Assays of Gene-expression Machineries

A great deal of progress in understanding gene expression has been made using in vitro systems. For most studies, functional assays are carried out using extracts that are prepared in bulk from 10-50 or more liters of cells grown in suspension. However, these large-scale preparations are not amenable to rapidly testing in vitro effects that result from a variety of in vivo cellular treatments or conditions. This journal video article shows a method for preparing functional small-scale nuclear extracts, using HeLa cells as an example. This method is carried out using as few as three 150 mm plates of cells grown as adherent monolayers. To illustrate the efficiency of the small-scale extracts, we show that they are as active as bulk nuclear extracts for coupled RNA Polymerase II transcription/splicing reactions. To demonstrate the utility of the extract protocol, we show that splicing is abolished in extracts prepared from HeLa cells treated with the splicing inhibitor drug E7107. The small-scale protocol should be generally applicable to any process or cell type that can be investigated in vitro using cellular extracts. These include patient cells that are only available in limited quantities or cells exposed to numerous agents such as drugs, DNA damaging agents, RNAi, or transfection, which require the use of small cell populations. In addition, small amounts of freshly grown cells are convenient and/or required for some applications.

A protocol for preparation of robust, small-scale HeLa nuclear extracts is described. This protocol is valuable for assays that require use of small populations of cells, such as cells treated with drugs or RNAi. The method should be applicable to a wide variety of gene expression assays and other cell types, including patient cells.

小规模的核提取物，基因表达机具功能分析

A great deal of progress in understanding gene expression has been made using in vitro systems.  For most studies, functional assays are carried out using ...